1.2.1 - Ancient India Notes 04

Elaborate Notes

Sisunaga Dynasty (c. 413 - 345 BCE)

• Establishment: The Sisunaga dynasty was founded by Sisunaga, who was initially an amatya (minister or high official) under the last Haryanka king, Nagadasaka. According to the Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicles, the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, the populace, disgusted by the patricidal nature of the Haryanka rulers, revolted and placed Sisunaga on the throne of Magadha.
• Conquest of Avanti: Sisunaga’s most significant military achievement was the final destruction of the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti (capital: Ujjain). This conquest ended the century-long rivalry between Magadha and Avanti, which had begun in the time of Bimbisara. The annexation of Avanti, with its rich iron ore deposits and control over trade routes to western India, immensely strengthened the Magadhan empire.
• Kalashoka (Kakavarna): Sisunaga was succeeded by his son Kalashoka, who is identified with Kakavarna in the Puranas. His reign is primarily remembered for hosting the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali in 383 BCE. This council was convened to settle disputes over the Vinaya Pitaka (rules of monastic discipline), which had arisen between the monks of the eastern and western regions. The council resulted in the first major schism in the Buddhist Sangha, leading to the formation of two groups: the Sthaviravadins (the Elders, who were more orthodox) and the Mahasanghikas (the Great Community, who were more liberal). This event marked a crucial turning point in the history of Buddhism.

Nanda Dynasty (c. 345 - 321 BCE)

• Origin and Establishment: The Nanda dynasty was established by Mahapadma Nanda. Puranic texts describe him as a shudra, the son of a barber and a courtesan, making the Nandas the first of the non-Kshatriya ruling dynasties of northern India. Greek writers like Curtius also refer to the Nanda king’s low origins. He overthrew the Sisunaga dynasty and embarked on an aggressive expansionist policy.
• Mahapadma Nanda’s Conquests: He is described in the Puranas as “sarvakshatrantaka” (uprooter of all Kshatriyas) and “ekarat” (the sole sovereign). These titles signify his extensive conquests, where he defeated numerous contemporary dynasties, including the Ikshvakus, Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, and Kurus. A Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela of Kalinga (1st century BCE) mentions a Nanda king constructing a canal in Kalinga, confirming their control over the region. His empire stretched from the Beas river in the west to Bengal in the east, and from the Himalayas to the Godavari river in the south, making it the first great pan-Indian empire.
• Dhana Nanda: The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda, son of Mahapadma. While he inherited a vast and powerful empire, he was deeply unpopular. Both Indian and Greco-Roman sources describe him as avaricious and oppressive, imposing heavy taxes on his subjects. The Greek writer Diodorus Siculus mentions the Nanda king’s immense wealth and a formidable army of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 chariots, and 3,000 elephants. It was the report of this military might that, combined with war-weariness, led Alexander’s troops to refuse to advance beyond the Beas river. His unpopularity, however, created a fertile ground for the revolution led by Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya.

Foreign Invasions

• Persian (Achaemenid) Invasion:
  • Context: In the 6th century BCE, while Magadha was expanding in the Gangetic plains, North-West India was politically fragmented into several small principalities. This vulnerability attracted the attention of the powerful Achaemenid Empire of Persia.
  • Conquest: The Persian emperor Darius I (c. 522-486 BCE) conquered parts of North-West India, including Punjab, the Indus Valley, and Sindh, around 518-516 BCE. The Behistun, Persepolis, and Naqsh-i-Rustam inscriptions of Darius I list ‘Gadara’ (Gandhara) and ‘Hidu’ (Hindush/Sindh) as part of his empire. The Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484-425 BCE), in his work The Histories, mentions that the Indian satrapy (province) was the 20th and most populous satrapy of the Persian empire and paid a substantial annual tribute of 360 talents of gold dust.
  • Impact:
    1. Political: The introduction of the Persian ‘Satrapy’ system of provincial governance, where provinces were ruled by governors called Satraps.
    2. Economic: The invasion fostered direct Indo-Persian trade and commerce, opening up new land and sea routes.
    3. Cultural: The use of the Kharosthi script, derived from the Persian Aramaic script, became prevalent in North-West India. It is written from right to left. Persian artistic influences, such as the bell-shaped capital and polished stone surfaces, can be seen as precursors to Mauryan art.
    4. Military: Xerxes (c. 486-465 BCE), the successor of Darius, employed Indian infantry and cavalry in his long war against the Greeks, as described by Herodotus.
• Greek (Macedonian) Invasion:
  • Alexander’s Campaign: After destroying the Achaemenid Empire, Alexander of Macedon marched towards India in 327 BCE, driven by a desire for world conquest and geographical exploration. He crossed the Hindu Kush and entered India through the Khyber Pass.
  • Resistance and Submission: The region was divided. Ambhi (Omphis), the ruler of Taxila, submitted without a fight, seeking an alliance against his rival, Porus. However, Porus (Puru), whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum (Hydaspes) and Chenab (Acesines) rivers, offered stiff resistance.
  • Battle of the Hydaspes (326 BCE): A fierce battle was fought on the banks of the Jhelum. According to Greek accounts by historians like Arrian and Plutarch, Alexander’s tactical genius overcame Porus’s formidable army, which included war elephants that initially caused panic among the Macedonian forces. Despite his defeat, Porus’s bravery greatly impressed Alexander, who reinstated him to his throne and even added more territory to his kingdom, making him a vassal.
  • Retreat and Death: Alexander’s army, exhausted from years of campaigning and intimidated by the reports of the powerful Nanda empire further east, refused to cross the Beas (Hyphasis) river. This forced Alexander to begin his retreat in 325 BCE. He died in Babylon in 323 BCE.
  • Impact:
    1. Political: The invasion destroyed the power of the small tribal states in the North-West, creating a political vacuum that was effectively filled by Chandragupta Maurya, aiding his empire-building.
    2. Historiographical: It established the first direct contact between India and Europe, leading to a surge in Greek accounts of India. The writings of Alexander’s companions like Nearchus, Onesicritus, and Aristobulus, though partially lost, provided valuable information about the geography, society, and customs of the time, forming the basis for later works by Strabo, Diodorus, and Arrian. Alexander’s invasion provides a firm chronological anchor for early Indian history, dated at 326 BCE.
    3. Economic: Four new trade routes between India and the West (three by land, one by sea) were opened, boosting commerce.
    4. Cultural: The interaction led to a Hellenistic influence on Indian art, particularly visible in the later Gandhara School of Art, which blended Indian themes with Greek sculptural styles.

Mauryan Empire (c. 321 - 187 BCE)

• Sources for Mauryan History:
  • Kautilya’s Arthashastra: A comprehensive treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy.
    • Authorship and Content: Attributed to Kautilya (Chanakya or Vishnugupta), the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya. It was rediscovered by R. Shamasastry in 1905. The text is divided into 15 books (adhikaranas). It is a prescriptive text on how a state should be governed rather than a descriptive account of the Mauryan administration itself. For instance, it does not mention Pataliputra or Chandragupta by name.
    • Core Philosophy: It famously states that Artha (material well-being/politics) is the primary goal, upon which Dharma (spiritual well-being) and Kama (sensual pleasure) depend. It details theories of governance like the Saptanga (seven limbs of the state) and Mandala (circle of states for foreign policy).
  • Megasthenes’ Indica:
    • Author and Context: Megasthenes was the ambassador of the Seleucid Greek king Seleucus Nicator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His original work is lost, but extensive quotations and summaries survive in the works of later Greek writers like Arrian, Strabo, Diodorus, and Pliny.
    • Key Observations: He described the Mauryan capital, Palimbothra (Pataliputra), as a magnificent city with a wooden palisade. He mentioned a well-organized municipal administration run by a council of 30 members divided into six committees. He refers to Chandragupta as Sandrocottus. His famous, though likely misinterpreted, observation was the absence of slavery in India. He also provided a seven-fold division of Indian society based on profession: philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates, and councillors.
  • Ashokan Inscriptions:
    • Nature and Decipherment: These are the first lithic records in Indian history. They were inscribed on rocks and pillars across the empire. The scripts used were Brahmi (most common), Kharosthi (in the North-West), and Aramaic and Greek (in Afghanistan). The language was primarily a form of Prakrit. The Brahmi script was first deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.
    • Content: The inscriptions are a direct source of Ashoka’s policies, especially his concept of Dhamma. In most inscriptions, Ashoka is referred to by his titles ‘Devanampiya’ (Beloved of the Gods) and ‘Piyadasi’ (He who looks on with affection). The identification of Devanampiya Piyadasi with Ashoka was confirmed by the Maski minor rock edict, which uses the name ‘Ashoka’. The Major Rock Edict XIII is particularly famous for its detailed description of the Kalinga War and its aftermath.
  • Other Sources:
    • Mudrarakshasa: A Sanskrit play by Vishakhadatta, written during the Gupta period (c. 4th-5th century CE). It is a purely political play that narrates the clever machinations of Chanakya to overthrow the Nandas and install Chandragupta on the throne.
    • Puranas: These religious texts provide lists of Mauryan kings and the duration of their reigns, though the details are often inconsistent.
    • Jain Literature: The Parishishtaparvan by Hemachandra (12th century CE) provides a detailed account of Chandragupta Maurya’s conversion to Jainism and his self-starvation to death (Sallekhana) at Shravanabelagola.
    • Buddhist Literature: Sri Lankan chronicles like the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa provide a detailed, though sometimes exaggerated, account of Ashoka’s life, his conversion to Buddhism, and his role in spreading the faith. The Divyavadana and Ashokavadana are other important Buddhist texts.
    • Sangam Literature: The Tamil poet Mamulanar, in his work Akananuru, refers to the “Vamba Moriyar” (Mauryan upstarts) and their southward expedition, suggesting Mauryan incursions into the Deccan.

Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 - 297 BCE)

• Ascension: With the guidance of his mentor Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the unpopular Dhana Nanda and established the Mauryan dynasty. The play Mudrarakshasa dramatizes this power struggle. His origins are debated; Buddhist sources claim he belonged to the Moriya Kshatriya clan of Pipphalivana, while Brahmanical texts like the Puranas suggest a humble origin.
• War with Seleucus Nicator (c. 305 BCE): Seleucus Nicator, a former general of Alexander who had established his rule over the eastern parts of Alexander’s empire, attempted to reconquer the Indian territories. He was decisively defeated by Chandragupta.
• Treaty: A treaty was concluded around 303 BCE, which was highly favorable to the Mauryans. Seleucus ceded the trans-Indus territories of Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Kandahar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan), and Paropamisadae (Kabul) to Chandragupta. He also gave his daughter, Helen, in marriage to the Mauryan emperor. In return, Chandragupta gifted Seleucus 500 war elephants. This treaty secured the North-Western frontier of the empire.
• Later Life and Death: According to Jain tradition, in the later part of his life, Chandragupta abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara. He became a disciple of the Jain monk Bhadrabahu and migrated to Shravanabelagola (in modern Karnataka), where he ended his life by performing Sallekhana, the Jain ritual of voluntary fasting unto death.

Bindusara (c. 297 - 273 BCE)

• Succession and Title: Son of Chandragupta, he inherited a vast empire. He is known in Greek sources as Amitrochates, which is likely a transliteration of the Sanskrit title Amitraghata (Slayer of Foes), indicating that he was a capable military leader who maintained the integrity of the empire.
• Religious Inclination: The Buddhist text Divyavadana mentions that he patronized the Ajivika sect, a contemporary heterodox ascetic movement founded by Makkhali Gosala.
• Foreign Relations: He continued the friendly relations with the Hellenistic kingdoms. The Greek writer Athenaeus, quoting an earlier source, mentions that Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I, the Seleucid king, requesting sweet wine, dried figs, and a sophist (a philosopher/teacher). Antiochus sent the wine and figs but politely explained that it was not customary among the Greeks to sell sophists. Ambassadors like Deimachus (from Antiochus I) and Dionysius (from Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt) are said to have visited his court.
• Reign and Succession: The Divyavadana speaks of a revolt in Taxila which was quelled by his son, Ashoka, who was the governor of Ujjain. The succession after Bindusara’s death was disputed, with Buddhist texts suggesting a violent struggle between his sons.

Ashoka (c. 268 - 232 BCE)

• Accession to the Throne: Ashoka succeeded his father Bindusara. According to Buddhist sources like the Mahavamsa, there was a four-year interregnum between his accession (c. 273 BCE) and his coronation (c. 269/268 BCE), during which he allegedly killed 99 of his brothers to secure the throne. His minister Radhagupta played a crucial role in his ascension.
• Kalinga War (261 BCE): In the 9th year after his coronation, Ashoka waged a brutal war against Kalinga (modern coastal Odisha). The Hathigumpha inscription suggests Kalinga was previously a part of the Nanda empire, so Ashoka’s invasion might have been to re-conquer a former territory. Ashoka’s Major Rock Edict XIII graphically describes the war’s horrors: “a hundred and fifty thousand people were deported, a hundred thousand were killed, and many times that number perished.”
• Change of Heart and Policy: The immense bloodshed and suffering of the war caused a profound change in Ashoka. He renounced warfare and adopted a policy of conquest through righteousness. His policy of Bherighosha (conquest by the sound of war drums) was replaced by Dhammaghosha (conquest by the sound of Dhamma).
• Ashoka’s Dhamma: It was not a specific religion but a moral and ethical code of conduct. Its principles, inscribed on his edicts, included:
  • Ahimsa (non-injury to living beings).
  • Respect for elders, teachers, and Brahmins and Shramanas (ascetics).
  • Proper treatment of slaves and servants.
  • Religious tolerance and respect for all sects.
  • Public welfare activities like planting trees, digging wells, and building rest houses.
• Propagation of Dhamma: To spread his message, Ashoka appointed a new class of officials called Dhamma Mahamattas (Major Rock Edict V). He also sent missions to foreign lands, including Sri Lanka (led by his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra), and to Hellenistic kingdoms in the West. He undertook Dhamma-yatras (tours of piety) to connect with his subjects.
• Later Life and Decline: The empire began to decline after Ashoka’s death in 232 BCE due to a combination of factors including weak successors, financial strain, and Brahminical reaction against his policies. The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated in 187 BCE by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga, who then founded the Sunga dynasty. A stone portrait of Ashoka, the only confirmed likeness, with the label Ranyo Ashoka (King Ashoka) in Brahmi script, was discovered at Kanaganahalli, Karnataka.

Aspects of Mauryan Society

• Social Structure:
  • Megasthenes’s Account: Divided society into seven occupational classes: Philosophers, Farmers, Soldiers, Herdsmen, Artisans, Magistrates, and Councillors. This was likely a functional classification and did not reflect the hereditary Varna system.
  • Varna System: The traditional four-fold Varna system (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) remained the theoretical framework of society, as acknowledged in Brahmanical texts and even in Ashokan edicts which call for respect towards Brahmins.
• Slavery (Dasa):
  • Contrasting Views: Megasthenes famously stated that “all Indians are free, and not one of them is a slave.” However, Kautilya’s Arthashastra provides detailed regulations concerning dasas (slaves).
  • Reconciliation: The discrepancy likely arose because Indian slavery was different from the chattel slavery prevalent in the Hellenistic world. In India, slaves (Ahitakas) could be individuals who pledged themselves to a creditor. Kautilya lays down rules for their humane treatment. The Arthashastra states that if a female slave (dasi) bore her master a son, both she and the child were legally free. This form of servitude was perhaps less severe and more regulated, leading Megasthenes to misinterpret its absence.
• Untouchability: The concept of untouchability was present. Kautilya mentions groups like the Chandalas and Shavapakas, who were considered impure and lived outside the main settlements, falling into the category of Antavasyin (those who live at the end/border).
• Mauryan Administration - Saptanga Theory:
  • The Arthashastra is the first Indian text to systematically define the state. It conceptualizes the state as an organism with seven integral limbs or elements (prakritis), known as the Saptanga Rajya:
    1. Svamin (The King): The sovereign head, the pivot of the entire system.
    2. Amatya (The Minister/Bureaucracy): The high officials who advise the king and run the administration.
    3. Janapada (The Territory and People): The land and its population, which must be fertile and loyal.
    4. Durga (The Fort): The fortified capital, the centre of military strength and administration.
    5. Kosha (The Treasury): A full treasury is essential for the state’s functioning, welfare, and military campaigns.
    6. Danda (The Army/Justice): A strong, loyal army to defend the state and a robust judicial system to maintain order.
    7. Mitra (The Ally): Friendly states that provide support in times of war and peace.
• The King (Svamin):
  • The king was the absolute authority, but not a despot. He was expected to be the “pravartak” (promulgator) of Dharma.
  • He had an extensive espionage system for internal and external intelligence, with spies categorized as Sanstha (stationary) and Sanchara (wandering).
  • Special reporters known as Pativedakas kept the king informed of public opinion and the affairs of the people at all times, as mentioned in Ashoka’s Rock Edict VI.
  • The king was heavily guarded, often by female bodyguards, and lived in constant fear of assassination, as described by both Kautilya and Megasthenes.

Prelims Pointers

• The founder of the Sisunaga dynasty was Sisunaga, who was an amatya under the Haryanka king Nagadasaka.
• Sisunaga annexed the kingdom of Avanti, ending a long-standing rivalry with Magadha.
• The Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali in 383 BCE under the patronage of King Kalashoka.
• The Nanda dynasty was founded by Mahapadma Nanda, who held the titles ‘Ekarat’ and ‘Sarvakshatrantaka’.
• The Nandas are considered the first non-Kshatriya ruling dynasty in North India.
• The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda, a contemporary of Alexander the Great.
• The Persian Achaemenid ruler Darius I annexed Gandhara and Sindh around 516 BCE.
• Kharosthi script, written from right to left, was introduced in North-West India as a result of Persian contact.
• Alexander the Great fought the Battle of the Hydaspes against King Porus in 326 BCE.
• Alexander’s army refused to advance beyond the Beas (Hyphasis) river.
• Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE.
• Kautilya’s Arthashastra is a treatise on statecraft, rediscovered by R. Shamasastry in 1905.
• Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, wrote the Indica.
• Megasthenes refers to Chandragupta as ‘Sandrocottus’ and Pataliputra as ‘Palimbothra’.
• James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837.
• Ashoka’s name is mentioned explicitly in the Maski, Gurjara, Nittur, and Udegolam inscriptions.
• The play Mudrarakshasa was written by Vishakhadatta.
• Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nicator around 305 BCE.
• Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jainism and died by Sallekhana at Shravanabelagola.
• Bindusara’s title was ‘Amitraghata’ (Slayer of Foes).
• Bindusara patronized the Ajivika sect.
• Ashoka’s coronation took place in 268/269 BCE, four years after his accession.
• The Kalinga War took place in 261 BCE, in the 9th year of Ashoka’s reign.
• Ashoka’s policy shifted from Bherighosha to Dhammaghosha after the Kalinga War.
• Officials appointed to spread Dhamma were called Dhamma Mahamattas.
• The Saptanga theory of the state is found in the Arthashastra.
• The last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga in 187 BCE.
• A stone portrait of ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ was found at Kanaganahalli, Karnataka.

Mains Insights

• Impact of Foreign Invasions on Early India: The Persian and Greek invasions were not mere military events; they acted as catalysts for significant political, economic, and cultural change.
  • Cause-Effect: The Achaemenid invasion integrated North-West India into the vast Persian economic network, introduced new administrative practices (satrapy) and a new script (Kharosthi). Alexander’s invasion, by destroying the small kingdoms of the North-West, inadvertently paved the way for Mauryan unification. This created a power vacuum that a centralizing force like Chandragupta could exploit, leading to the formation of the first pan-Indian empire.
  • Historiographical Significance: Alexander’s invasion provides the first definite chronological point in early Indian history (326 BCE), allowing historians to date subsequent events with greater certainty. Greek accounts, despite their biases, offer a valuable external perspective on Indian society and polity, which can be corroborated or contrasted with indigenous sources.
• Nature of Ashoka’s Dhamma: A Tool of Politics or a Moral Code?
  • Debate: Was Ashoka’s Dhamma a propagation of his personal Buddhist faith, or was it a secular, ethical policy for political consolidation?
  • View 1 (Dhamma as Buddhism): Scholars like Vincent Smith argue that Dhamma was essentially Buddhism, meant to spread the faith. The dispatch of missions, patronage of the Sangha, and the emphasis on ahimsa support this view.
  • View 2 (Dhamma as Political Ideology): Historians like Romila Thapar argue that Dhamma was an original ideology devised by Ashoka to consolidate his vast and diverse empire. By creating a common ethical code that transcended religious and cultural differences, he aimed to foster social harmony and political unity. It served as a social glue in a heterogeneous empire with multiple languages, religions, and ethnicities. It was a tool of imperial integration.
  • Synthesis: The most balanced view is that while Ashoka was personally a devout Buddhist, his public propagation of Dhamma was a broader ethical code. It drew inspiration from Buddhist teachings but was presented as a universal, non-sectarian set of principles to ensure social cohesion and good governance.
• Sources and the Reconstruction of Mauryan History:
  • Challenge of Corroboration: Reconstructing Mauryan history requires a critical synthesis of diverse sources—Brahmanical (Puranas), Buddhist (Mahavamsa), Jain (Parishishtaparvan), Greek (Indica), secular Sanskrit (Arthashastra, Mudrarakshasa), and archaeological (inscriptions).
  • Contradictions and Biases: Each source has its own perspective and bias. For example, Buddhist texts glorify Ashoka’s conversion, while the Arthashastra presents a pragmatic, and at times ruthless, vision of statecraft. Megasthenes’s account is that of an outsider, prone to misunderstanding complex Indian social structures like caste and slavery. A historian’s task is to critically analyze these discrepancies to arrive at a more objective picture. The absence of Chandragupta’s name in the Arthashastra raises questions about its exact date and authorship, a major historiographical debate.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. Who among the following rulers advised his subjects through this inscription? “Whosoever praises his own religious sect or blames other sects out of excessive devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect, he rather injures his own sect very severely.” (2020) (a) Ashoka (b) Samudragupta (c) Harshavardhana (d) Krishnadeva Raya

   Answer: (a) Ashoka. This is a direct quote reflecting the principle of religious tolerance central to Ashoka’s Dhamma, as mentioned in his Major Rock Edict XII.

2. In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka? (2019) (a) Kanganahalli (b) Sanchi (c) Shahbazgarhi (d) Sohgaura

   Answer: (a) Kanganahalli. The relief sculpture with the Brahmi label ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ was discovered at the Kanaganahalli stupa site in Karnataka.

3. According to Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which of the following are correct? (2022)

   1. A person could be a slave as a result of a judicial punishment.
   2. If a female slave bore her master a son, she was legally free.
   3. If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her master, the son was entitled to the legal status of the master’s son. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3. All three statements are consistent with the detailed regulations regarding slavery (dasas) provided in Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which outlines various conditions for enslavement and manumission.

4. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site? (2019) (a) Chanhudaro (b) Kot Diji (c) Sohgaura (d) Desalpur

   Answer: (c) Sohgaura. Sohgaura, in Uttar Pradesh, is famous for a Mauryan-era copper plate inscription, one of the earliest epigraphic records of the Mauryan period, which deals with famine relief measures. The others are well-known Harappan sites.

5. King Ashoka’s Major Rock Edicts which state that the conquests by “Dhamma” are better than conquests by force are? (2023 - This is a hypothetical question based on recurring themes, as an exact match might not be available in recent papers) (a) Rock Edict X (b) Rock Edict XI (c) Rock Edict XII (d) Rock Edict XIII

   Answer: (d) Rock Edict XIII. Major Rock Edict XIII is the most famous edict, which gives a detailed account of the Kalinga War, Ashoka’s remorse, and his resolution to conquer through Dhamma (Dhammavijaya) instead of war (Digvijaya).

Mains

1. Ashoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as a sectarian faith. Discuss. (Hypothetical, based on syllabus)

   Answer: Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma, propagated through his edicts, was a moral and ethical code intended for the governance and integration of his vast and diverse empire. While Ashoka was personally a Buddhist, his Dhamma should not be equated with a sectarian faith for the following reasons:

   • Universal and Non-Sectarian Content: The principles of Dhamma were universal. They included respect for elders, mercy towards servants and slaves, non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness, and charity. These values are common to many religious and ethical systems and were not exclusive to Buddhism.
   • Absence of Core Buddhist Doctrines: The edicts do not mention the core tenets of Buddhism, such as the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, or the concept of Nirvana. The focus is on social conduct and ethical behaviour in this life, rather than on theological or metaphysical doctrines.
   • Emphasis on Religious Tolerance: Major Rock Edict XII explicitly calls for tolerance among all religious sects. Ashoka asks people not to praise their own sect or decry others without reason, stating that such actions harm one’s own sect. This shows an intent to foster harmony rather than impose a single faith.
   • Patronage to All Sects: While Ashoka was a great patron of the Buddhist Sangha, he also extended support to other sects. He dedicated the Barabar caves to the Ajivika ascetics, demonstrating his non-sectarian approach in state policy.
   • Political and Social Objective: Historian Romila Thapar argues that Dhamma was a political tool for imperial consolidation. In an empire with diverse cultures, languages, and belief systems, Dhamma provided a common ideological ground to promote social cohesion and loyalty to the state. It was a state policy for creating a responsible and humane society. Therefore, Ashoka’s Dhamma was a secular ethical code, inspired by Buddhist values but designed for the administrative and social needs of the Mauryan state, not the propagation of a sectarian faith.

2. The sources for the history of the Mauryan period present a complex and sometimes contradictory picture. Elaborate. (Hypothetical, based on syllabus)

   Answer: The reconstruction of Mauryan history relies on a variety of sources, each with its own perspective, making the task complex. The main sources and their contradictions are:

   1. Greek Accounts (Megasthenes’ Indica):
      • Perspective: An outsider’s view, valuable for its detail on administration (Pataliputra’s municipal board) and society (seven-fold division).
      • Contradiction: Megasthenes’s claim of the ‘absence of slavery’ directly contradicts Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which details laws for slaves. This is likely a misinterpretation based on the difference between Indian indentured servitude and Greek chattel slavery. His seven-fold social division also clashes with the traditional four-fold Varna system.
   2. Brahmanical Literature (Puranas, Arthashastra):
      • Perspective: The Arthashastra is a pragmatic, prescriptive text on statecraft, advocating for realpolitik, including espionage and warfare. Puranas often portray the Mauryas as being of low origin (shudra).
      • Contradiction: The ruthless statecraft of the Arthashastra contrasts sharply with the ethical and non-violent state policy promoted in Ashokan edicts. This has led to debates about whether the Arthashastra truly represents the Mauryan period or is a later compilation.
   3. Buddhist and Jain Literature (Mahavamsa, Parishishtaparvan):
      • Perspective: These texts are primarily religious and aim to glorify their respective faiths by associating great rulers with them.
      • Contradiction: Buddhist texts like the Mahavamsa portray Ashoka as a cruel tyrant (‘Chandashoka’) before his conversion, who killed his 99 brothers. This dramatic account might be an exaggeration to highlight the transformative power of Buddhism. Jain sources focus entirely on Chandragupta’s conversion to Jainism, a detail absent in other accounts.
   4. Archaeological Sources (Ashokan Inscriptions):
      • Perspective: These are official pronouncements from the king himself and are considered the most authentic source for Ashoka’s reign and policies.
      • Contradiction: While invaluable, they offer only the royal perspective. They present an idealized version of Ashoka’s rule and Dhamma, without shedding light on the actual implementation or public reception across the empire. They tell us little about the reigns of Chandragupta or Bindusara. In conclusion, a nuanced understanding of the Mauryan period requires a critical cross-examination of these diverse sources, acknowledging their inherent biases and limitations to construct a balanced historical narrative.

3. Analyze the causes and consequences of the Kalinga War. (Hypothetical, based on syllabus)

   Answer: The Kalinga War, fought in 261 BCE, was a pivotal event in the reign of Emperor Ashoka and in the history of ancient India. Causes:

   1. Imperial Expansion: The Mauryan empire, since the time of Chandragupta, had been expansionist. Kalinga (modern Odisha) was a powerful and prosperous kingdom that had remained outside Mauryan control, challenging their imperial supremacy.
   2. Strategic and Economic Importance: Kalinga controlled the land and sea routes to South India and Southeast Asia, and its maritime activities made it a wealthy region. Its annexation was crucial for the economic and strategic interests of the Magadhan empire.
   3. Historical Precedent: The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela suggests that Kalinga was once part of the Nanda empire. Ashoka’s invasion could be seen as an attempt to reclaim a territory that Magadha considered rightfully its own. Consequences:
   4. Shift in State Policy (Bherighosha to Dhammaghosha): The immense bloodshed of the war, as described in Ashoka’s Major Rock Edict XIII, led to his profound remorse. He abandoned the policy of physical conquest (Bherighosha) and adopted a policy of cultural conquest through righteousness (Dhammaghosha). This is a unique instance in world history of a victor renouncing war at the peak of his power.
   5. Adoption and Propagation of Dhamma: The war was a direct catalyst for Ashoka’s formulation and propagation of Dhamma. He appointed Dhamma Mahamattas and sent missions to spread this ethical code within and outside his empire, focusing on non-violence, tolerance, and social welfare.
   6. End of Mauryan Military Expansion: After the Kalinga War, the era of Mauryan military expansion came to an end. Ashoka’s successors inherited a policy of pacifism, which some historians argue weakened the empire’s military preparedness and contributed to its eventual decline.
   7. Consolidation of the Empire: While ending further expansion, the victory consolidated the Mauryan empire, bringing nearly the entire Indian subcontinent (except the extreme south) under a single administration. The subsequent peace under Ashoka’s Dhamma policy helped in the cultural and political unification of this vast territory. In essence, the Kalinga War was a watershed moment that transformed Ashoka from a conquering monarch into a philanthropic ruler and fundamentally altered the character of the Mauryan state.