1.2.1 - Ancient India Notes 05

Elaborate Notes

Saptanga Rajya (The Seven Limbs of the State) - continued

The concept of the Saptanga Rajya, systematically articulated by Kautilya in his treatise, the Arthashastra (c. 4th century BCE), provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the Mauryan state structure. It posits that a state is an organism composed of seven essential and interrelated limbs or elements (prakritis).

• Amatyas (The Ministers and High Officials):

  • The Amatyas formed the backbone of the Mauryan bureaucracy. This category included not just the high-ranking ministers (Mantrins) who formed the king’s inner council (Mantriparishad), but also a vast array of officials managing various departments.
  • Key officials included the Purohita (Chief Priest), who advised the king on religious and moral matters; the Senapati (Commander-in-Chief), responsible for military affairs; and the Yuvaraj (Crown Prince), the heir apparent.
  • The Arthashastra details a rigorous process for selecting Amatyas, emphasizing qualities like integrity, wisdom, and loyalty, tested through a series of temptations known as upadha pariksha.
  • Two of the most critical fiscal officers were the Samaharta (Collector-General), who was responsible for the assessment and collection of all types of revenue, and the Sannidhata (Treasurer), who managed the royal treasury and storehouses.
  • The term Mahamattas (or Mahamatras) appears in both the Arthashastra and Ashokan inscriptions, referring to high-ranking officers with significant administrative and judicial duties. Ashoka, for instance, created a special cadre of Dhamma-Mahamattas to propagate his policy of Dhamma.
  • At the provincial and district levels, officers like the Pradeshika (in charge of district administration and revenue collection), Rajuka (responsible for land survey, settlement, and judicial functions), and Yukta (a subordinate official, likely in charge of the treasury or accounts) ensured the implementation of central policies. This hierarchical structure is detailed by scholars like R.S. Sharma in India’s Ancient Past (2005).

• Janapada (The Territory and its People):

  • The Mauryan empire was a vast territory. For administrative efficiency, it was divided into provinces. While the central region of Magadha was under direct rule, the empire had at least four major provinces, each governed by a royal prince (Kumar) or a governor from the royal family.
    • Northern Province (Uttarapatha) with its capital at Taxila.
    • Western Province (Avantiratha) with its capital at Ujjayini.
    • Eastern Province (Prachyapatha) with its capital at Tosali (in modern Odisha).
    • Southern Province (Dakshinapatha) with its capital at Suvarnagiri (meaning ‘golden mountain’, likely in Karnataka, indicating the region’s importance for gold mining).
  • Rural administration was meticulously organized in a decimal hierarchy to facilitate revenue collection and governance:
    • Samgrahana: A cluster of about 10 villages.
    • Karvatika: A group of 200 villages.
    • Dronamukha: An administrative unit of 400 villages.
    • Sthaniya: The largest rural unit, comprising 800 villages.
  • At the village level, the Gramika (village headman), often a hereditary post, managed local affairs with the assistance of a council of village elders (Gramavridhas). This system allowed for a degree of local autonomy while ensuring central control.
  • Urban administration, especially of the capital Pataliputra, was highly sophisticated. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes, in his work Indica (c. 300 BCE), describes a municipal commission of 30 members divided into six committees of five members each. These committees supervised:
    1. Industrial arts and artisans’ wages.
    2. Welfare of foreigners.
    3. Registration of births and deaths (for taxation and census).
    4. Trade, commerce, weights, and measures.
    5. Supervision of manufactured articles and prevention of adulteration.
    6. Collection of a 10% tax on goods sold.

• Durga (The Fortified Capital):

  • Durga symbolizes not just the fortified capital but the military strength required to defend the state. The Mauryan military was a formidable force, essential for both expansion and internal security.
  • Kautilya describes the classic four-fold army (Chaturanga-bala):
    • Infantry (Padati): Headed by the Patyadhyaksha.
    • Cavalry (Ashva): Headed by the Ashvadhyaksha.
    • War Elephants (Hasti): Headed by the Hastyadhyaksha. This was a particularly crucial division for which the Mauryas were renowned.
    • Chariots (Ratha): Headed by the Rathadhyaksha.
  • Megasthenes provides a parallel account, mentioning a military department also administered by a board of 30 members divided into six committees, overseeing Infantry, Cavalry, Chariots, Elephants, a Navy, and Transport/Commissariat. The mention of a navy is a significant detail, highlighting Mauryan control over riverine and possibly coastal routes.
  • The army comprised various types of troops, including Maula (hereditary soldiers, forming the core of the army), Bhritakas (mercenaries), Srenibala (soldiers provided by guilds), and Atavibala (forest and tribal levies).

• Kosha (The Treasury):

  • A full treasury was considered the lifeblood of the state, funding the administration, army, and public works. The Mauryan economy was predominantly agrarian.
  • The primary source of revenue was the land tax, known as Bhaga, typically levied at one-sixth (1/6) of the produce, though it could vary. An additional tribute called Bali was also collected.
  • The Arthashastra makes a clear distinction between state-owned lands (Sita lands) and privately-owned lands. Sita lands were cultivated directly by state-employed labourers, slaves, and prisoners under the supervision of the Sitadhyaksha (Superintendent of Agriculture).
  • Private landowners were called Kshetrika, while those who cultivated the land as tenants were Upavasa.
  • Numerous other taxes supplemented the state’s income: Pindkara (a fixed tax on a group of villages), Kara (a tax on fruit and flower gardens), Hiranya (a tax paid in cash), and Pranaya (an emergency tax, literally ‘a gift of affection’, which could be levied in times of crisis).
  • The state monopolized key industries like mining and metallurgy, overseen by officers like the Lohadhyaksha (Superintendent of Iron).
  • To expand the agrarian base, the state promoted the policy of Sunyanivesha—settling new, unoccupied lands, often with sudra cultivators, to bring more territory under the plough and the tax net.
  • The currency system consisted of silver punch-marked coins (panas) and copper coins (mashakas). The Rupadarshaka was the examiner of coins, ensuring their authenticity and standard.

• Danda (The Army and Coercive Power / Justice):

  • While classically Danda refers to the army and coercive authority, the Mauryan administrative system also featured a sophisticated judicial structure, often discussed under this heading.
  • Kautilya describes two main types of courts:
    • Dharmasthiya: These were civil courts dealing with disputes related to marriage, inheritance, property, contracts, etc. They were presided over by judges called Dharmasthas or Vyavaharikas.
    • Kantakashodhana: Literally ‘removal of thorns’, these were criminal courts that dealt with threats to the state, such as sedition, theft, murder, and misconduct by officials. They functioned more like police-cum-magistrate courts.
  • The king was the apex of the judicial system. Ashokan inscriptions confirm that senior officials like Rajukas and Mahamattas were also vested with judicial powers. The Pradeshtri was another high-ranking judicial officer responsible for suppressing criminals.
  • Punishments were severe and differentiated based on the varna of the offender and the victim, reflecting the social hierarchy of the time. Punishments ranged from fines to mutilation, torture, and capital punishment.

• Mitra (The Ally):

  • A friendly state or ally was considered a crucial asset for security and prosperity. Kautilya’s foreign policy is highly pragmatic and is rooted in the Mandala theory (a geopolitical model of concentric circles of friends, enemies, and neutrals).
  • He outlines six policies (Shadgunya) to be used based on the relative strength of one’s own state versus the enemy’s:
    1. Sandhi (Peace/Treaty): To be made when one is weaker than the enemy.
    2. Vigraha (War/Hostility): To be waged when one is stronger.
    3. Asana (Neutrality/Halting): To be observed when both powers are equal.
    4. Yana (March/Expedition): To be undertaken when one is significantly stronger and can ensure victory.
    5. Samshraya (Seeking Shelter): To be done when one is very weak and needs protection from a stronger power.
    6. Dvaidhibhava (Dual Policy): Making peace with one enemy while waging war against another.
  • The entire framework is envisioned from the perspective of a Vijigishu (the would-be conqueror). Kautilya distinguishes three types of conquest:
    • Dharmavijaya (Righteous Conquest): The conqueror is satisfied with the enemy’s submission and allegiance. Ashoka later adopted this as his state policy.
    • Lobhavijaya (Conquest for Greed): Motivated by the seizure of land and wealth.
    • Asuravijaya (Demonic Conquest): Involving the seizure of land, wealth, wife, and life of the defeated king.
  • Diplomacy was conducted through envoys (Dutas), who were categorized based on their authority and mission, such as Nisrihartha (full-powered), Parimitartha (with limited powers), and Sasanahara (a royal messenger).

Ashokan Inscriptions

Discovered and deciphered by the British antiquarian James Prinsep in 1837, the inscriptions of Emperor Ashoka (c. 268-232 BCE) are the earliest epigraphic evidence from Indian history. Written primarily in Prakrit language and Brahmi script (Kharosthi in the northwest), they articulate his policy of Dhamma.

• Ashoka’s Dhamma: It was not a specific religious doctrine but a moral and ethical code of conduct inspired by Buddhist teachings. It emphasized non-violence (ahimsa), tolerance towards all sects, respect for elders, kindness to servants and slaves, and charity towards all. His aim was to create a harmonious and just society.

• He organized the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra around 250 BCE to resolve disputes within the Sangha and purify the Buddhist movement. Tradition, particularly the Sri Lankan chronicles Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, credits him with constructing 84,000 stupas to enshrine the relics of the Buddha across his empire.

• The 14 Major Rock Edicts: These are a series of edicts found at several sites (e.g., Girnar, Kalsi, Mansehra, Shahbazgarhi, Dhauli, Jaugada) which lay down the principal tenets of Dhamma.

  • Rock Edict I: Prohibits animal slaughter, especially in religious sacrifices and for royal consumption. Mentions that formerly “hundreds of thousands” of animals were killed, but now only two peacocks and one deer are killed, with a promise to stop this too.
  • Rock Edict II: Provides for medical treatment for humans and animals (chikitstha). It also mentions his diplomatic and welfare activities extending to the southern kingdoms of Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras, and Keralaputras, and the Greek king Antiochus II.
  • Rock Edict III: Stresses generosity to Brahmins and Sramanas. It instructs his officials—Yuktas, Rajukas, and Pradeshikas—to tour the kingdom every five years to spread the message of Dhamma.
  • Rock Edict IV: Declares that due to the practice of Dhamma, the sound of war drums (Bherighosa) has been replaced by the sound of Dhamma (Dhammaghosa).
  • Rock Edict V: Expresses concern for the welfare of slaves and servants. It mentions the appointment of a special cadre of officials called Dhamma-Mahamattas for the first time, tasked with propagating Dhamma among all sects. It reflects his paternalistic attitude: “All men are my children.”
  • Rock Edict VI: Emphasizes the king’s availability to his officials at all times (sarva-kala) for the dispatch of public business and to be informed of the people’s condition.
  • Rock Edict VII: Appeals for religious tolerance among all sects.
  • Rock Edict VIII: Describes Ashoka’s first Dhamma-yatra (tour for Dhamma) to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree, replacing the earlier royal pleasure tours (vihara-yatras).
  • Rock Edict IX: Condemns popular, superstitious ceremonies (especially those performed by women) as having little value and advocates for the “ceremony of Dhamma” (self-control, purity of heart).
  • Rock Edict X: Decries the desire for personal fame and glory and recommends the pursuit of Dhamma instead.
  • Rock Edict XI: Provides a further explanation of Dhamma, highlighting respect for elders, charity, and proper treatment of slaves and servants as its key components.
  • Rock Edict XII: Makes a determined plea for tolerance among different religious sects and mentions the appointment of Ithijika-Mahamattas (officers in charge of women’s welfare).
  • Rock Edict XIII: This is the most important edict. It vividly describes the horrors of the Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE), mentioning that 100,000 were killed, 150,000 were deported, and many more perished. This event led to Ashoka’s profound remorse and his conversion to a policy of conquest by righteousness (Dhammavijaya) instead of military conquest. It names five contemporary Hellenistic kings to whom he sent Dhamma missions: Antiochus II (Syria), Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Egypt), Antigonus Gonatas (Macedonia), Magas (Cyrene), and Alexander (Epirus).
  • Rock Edict XIV: A concluding edict, it states that the inscriptions have been engraved across the country in various forms so that people may act accordingly.

• Ashoka’s Name: In most of his inscriptions, Ashoka is referred to by his titles Devanampiya (“Beloved of the Gods”) and Piyadasi (“He who looks on with affection”). His personal name “Ashoka” appears only in four Minor Rock Edicts found at Maski (Karnataka), Gujarra (Madhya Pradesh), Nittur (Karnataka), and Udegolam (Karnataka).

The Decline of the Mauryan Empire

The vast Mauryan empire, which had unified the subcontinent, began to disintegrate soon after Ashoka’s death in 232 BCE. The last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, was assassinated in 187 BCE by his Brahmin commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga. The decline was a result of multiple, interconnected factors.

• Brahminical Reaction: Proposed by scholar Haraprasad Shastri, this theory suggests that Ashoka’s policies—such as the ban on animal sacrifices, his patronage of Buddhism, and the creation of Dhamma-Mahamattas who could interfere in the lives of all sections of society, including Brahmins—led to a strong reaction from the Brahmin community, culminating in Pushyamitra’s coup.
• Financial Crisis: Historian D.D. Kosambi argued that the enormous expenditure on maintaining a large army and bureaucracy, coupled with Ashoka’s grants to Buddhist monasteries, strained the treasury. Archaeological evidence of debased, silver-plated punch-marked coins from the late Mauryan period supports this theory of economic weakness.
• Oppressive Provincial Rule: Sources like the Buddhist text Divyavadana mention revolts in provinces like Taxila against the misrule of corrupt officials (amatyas). While Bindusara and Ashoka were able to quell these, weaker successors could not, leading to provinces breaking away.
• Weak Successors and Division of the Empire: Ashoka’s successors were not as capable as their predecessors. After Ashoka’s death, the empire was likely partitioned among his sons (e.g., Kunala, Jalauka), which fatally weakened the central authority.
• Vastness of the Empire and Communication Gaps: The sheer size of the empire made it difficult to administer effectively from a single center, Pataliputra, especially given the primitive means of communication.
• Ashoka’s Pacifist Policy: Some historians argue that Ashoka’s renunciation of war after the Kalinga conflict weakened the military’s morale and preparedness, making the empire vulnerable to foreign invasions, such as those by the Bactrian Greeks in the northwest. However, this is debated, as there is no evidence that Ashoka disbanded the army.

Shunga Dynasty (c. 187 BCE – 73 BCE)

• Pushyamitra Shunga (c. 187-151 BCE):
  • He founded the dynasty by assassinating Brihadratha. His empire was much smaller than the Mauryan one, largely confined to the Gangetic valley.
  • He faced and successfully repelled two major threats. The Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela of Kalinga (Chedi dynasty) claims that Kharavela defeated the forces of Magadha. He also faced invasions from the Indo-Greeks, likely Demetrius and later Menander, pushing them back from Pataliputra.
  • His religious policy is a subject of debate. Buddhist texts like the Divyavadana and the Ashokavadana portray him as a fierce persecutor of Buddhism, who destroyed monasteries and offered rewards for the heads of monks.
  • However, archaeological evidence contradicts this simplistic view. Major Buddhist monuments like the stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were renovated and expanded during the Shunga period, suggesting either royal patronage or a flourishing of Buddhism under their rule regardless of the king’s personal faith.
  • Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahminism and is recorded to have performed two Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) yajnas, a significant Vedic ritual to assert imperial sovereignty. This is confirmed by his contemporary, the great Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali, in his work Mahabhashya.
• Agnimitra and Later Rulers:
  • Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son, Agnimitra. He is famous as the hero of the Sanskrit play Malavikagnimitram, written by the classical poet Kalidasa several centuries later. The play provides some historical details about his reign, including a conflict with the kingdom of Vidarbha.
  • The dynasty declined under a series of weaker rulers. The last Shunga king, Devabhuti, was assassinated in 73 BCE by his minister, Vasudeva Kanva, who then established the short-lived Kanva dynasty. The Kanvas were soon displaced by the Satavahanas, who rose to power in the Deccan.

---

Prelims Pointers

• Mauryan Officials:
  • Samaharta: Chief Collector-General of Revenue.
  • Sannidhata: Chief Treasurer and Custodian of the State Treasury.
  • Sitadhyaksha: Superintendent of state-owned agricultural lands (Sita land).
  • Rupadarshaka: Examiner of coins.
  • Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of Iron and Metallurgy.
  • Rajukas: Officials responsible for land measurement and judicial functions.
  • Pradeshika: Head of district administration.
• Mauryan Administration:
  • Provincial capitals: Taxila (North), Ujjayini (West), Tosali (East), Suvarnagiri (South).
  • Rural Administrative Units: Sthaniya (800 villages), Dronamukha (400), Karvatika (200), Samgrahana (10).
  • Pataliputra’s municipal administration had 6 committees with 5 members each, as described by Megasthenes.
• Mauryan Economy:
  • Main land tax: Bhaga (usually 1/6th of produce).
  • Additional tribute: Bali.
  • Emergency tax: Pranaya.
  • Tax paid in cash: Hiranya.
  • State policy to settle new lands: Sunyanivesha.
• Mauryan Justice and Foreign Policy:
  • Civil Courts: Dharmasthiya.
  • Criminal Courts: Kantakashodhana.
  • Kautilya’s six-fold foreign policy: Shadgunya (Sandhi, Vigraha, Asana, Yana, Samshraya, Dvaidhibhava).
• Ashokan Edicts:
  • Deciphered by: James Prinsep (1837).
  • Main script: Brahmi. Script in North-West: Kharosthi.
  • Rock Edict 2: Mentions southern kingdoms (Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras, Keralaputras).
  • Rock Edict 5: First mention of the appointment of Dhamma-Mahamattas.
  • Rock Edict 13: Describes the Kalinga War and mentions five Greek kings.
  • Ashoka’s name is found in inscriptions at: Maski, Gujjarra, Nittur, and Udegolam.
  • Ashoka’s common titles: Devanampiya and Piyadasi.
• Post-Mauryan Dynasties:
  • Last Mauryan Ruler: Brihadratha.
  • Founder of Shunga Dynasty: Pushyamitra Shunga (a Brahmin commander).
  • Pushyamitra Shunga performed two Ashvamedha sacrifices.
  • Patanjali’s Mahabhashya is a contemporary work from the Shunga period.
  • Agnimitra, son of Pushyamitra, is the hero of Kalidasa’s play Malavikagnimitram.
  • Last Shunga Ruler: Devabhuti.
  • Founder of Kanva Dynasty: Vasudeva Kanva.

---

Mains Insights

1. Nature of the Mauryan State: Centralized or Decentralized?

   • Centralization View: Based on a literal reading of Kautilya’s Arthashastra, some scholars envision the Mauryan empire as a highly centralized, monolithic bureaucracy with the emperor exercising absolute control over a vast, uniform administration. The elaborate hierarchy of officials, state control over the economy, and a pan-Indian network of spies support this view.
   • Differential Control View (Historiographical Debate): Scholars like Romila Thapar, in her work Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, argue for a more nuanced model. She suggests the empire consisted of a ‘metropolitan state’ (the core region of Magadha under tight control), ‘core areas’ (provincial centers like Taxila and Ujjayini with strong administrative presence), and ‘peripheral areas’ (vast regions where control was indirect and primarily focused on resource extraction). This model acknowledges the logistical impossibility of uniform, deep control over the entire subcontinent.

2. Kautilya’s Rajadharma vs. Ashoka’s Dhamma: A Shift in Political Ideology?

   • Kautilya’s Arthashastra represents Rajadharma based on Dandaniti (the science of coercion) and Realpolitik. The state’s primary goal is its own security and expansion (vijigishu), using any means necessary, including espionage, warfare (Vigraha), and strategic alliances (Sandhi). It is a pragmatic, secular, and often ruthless guide to statecraft.
   • Ashoka’s Dhamma represents a radical departure. It is a normative, ethical framework for governance based on paternalism (“All men are my children”), non-violence, and moral persuasion. Ashoka replaces Bherighosa (conquest by war) with Dhammaghosa (conquest by righteousness).
   • Analysis: This shift reflects a unique experiment in ancient Indian polity. While Kautilya focuses on the ‘how’ of power, Ashoka focuses on the ‘why’—the moral purpose of power. However, it is crucial to note that Ashoka did not dismantle the Mauryan state’s coercive apparatus (Danda). The army was maintained, and capital punishment was not abolished, suggesting that Dhamma was a new layer of royal ideology imposed upon the pre-existing administrative and military structure, not a complete replacement of it.

3. The Decline of the Mauryas: A Multi-Causal Analysis

   • The fall of the Mauryan empire cannot be attributed to a single cause. It was a complex process resulting from the interplay of several factors:
     • Structural Weaknesses: The immense size of the empire and the lack of rapid communication made centralized control inherently fragile and dependent on the emperor’s personal ability.
     • Economic Strain: The top-heavy bureaucracy and large standing army were a massive drain on the treasury. Potential fiscal mismanagement and the lack of new revenue sources after the cessation of expansionary wars likely led to an economic crisis.
     • Political Factors: The succession of weak rulers after Ashoka created a power vacuum. The division of the empire further weakened the center, allowing provincial governors to assert independence.
     • Ideological Shift/Social Tensions: Ashoka’s policies, while noble, may have created social friction. The “Brahminical reaction” theory points to the resentment of the priestly class against the pro-Buddhist, anti-ritualistic stance of the state, which ultimately triggered the final coup.

4. The Shunga Period: Brahminical Revival or Political Continuity?

   • Brahminical Revival: The rise of Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahmin, and his performance of Vedic sacrifices like the Ashvamedha, clearly indicate a revival of Brahminical ideology at the royal court. The patronage of Sanskrit literature (Patanjali) also points in this direction.
   • Political and Cultural Continuity: Despite the change in ruling dynasty and ideology, many Mauryan administrative structures likely continued. The Shungas inherited the Mauryan heartland and its administrative framework. Furthermore, the flourishing of Buddhist art at Sanchi and Bharhut during their reign complicates the narrative of a simple “reaction.” It suggests that while the royal court patronized Brahminism, Buddhism continued to thrive due to the support of other patrons like merchants, guilds, and the general populace. The Shunga period is best seen as a transition, where Mauryan political forms co-existed with a renewed emphasis on Brahminical traditions at the elite level.

---

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. Who among the following rulers advised his subjects through this inscription? “Whosoever praises his own religious sect or blames other sects out of excessive devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect, he rather injures his own sect very severely.” (UPSC CSE 2020) (a) Ashoka (b) Samudragupta (c) Harshavardhana (d) Krishnadeva Raya

   Answer: (a) Ashoka. This is the central message of Ashoka’s Major Rock Edict XII, which appeals for tolerance among all religious sects.

2. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Chanhudaro (b) Kot Diji (c) Sohgaura (d) Desalpur

   Answer: (c) Sohgaura. Sohgaura, in Uttar Pradesh, is known for a Mauryan-era copper plate inscription that mentions the establishment of granaries to combat famine. It is not a Harappan site.

3. In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Kanganahalli (b) Sanchi (c) Shahbazgarhi (d) Sohgaura

   Answer: (a) Kanganahalli. The archaeological site of Kanganahalli in Karnataka has a limestone slab with a portrait of a king and his queen, with the Brahmi inscription ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ above it. This is a unique finding.

4. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE 2016)

   1. Devi-Chandragupta : Bilhana
   2. Hammira-Mahakavya : Nayachandra Suri
   3. Milinda-Panha : Nagasena
   4. Niti-Vakyamrita : Somadeva Suri

   Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 only

   Answer: (d) 2, 3 and 4 only. Devi-Chandraguptam was written by Vishakhadatta, not Bilhana. The other three pairs are correctly matched. Milinda-Panha contains dialogues relevant to the post-Mauryan Indo-Greek period.

5. The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India recorded the general conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC CSE 2013)

   1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.
   2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or guilt of a person.
   3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.

   Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only. Yuan Chwang himself was robbed, so statement 1 is incorrect. He provides detailed accounts of judicial ordeals and taxes on trade, making statements 2 and 3 correct. While this question is about a later period, it demonstrates the type of questions asked on administration and society based on historical sources.

Mains

1. The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art and history. Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2020, 10 Marks)

   Answer: Rock-cut architecture is a vital primary source that provides invaluable insights into the art, religion, society, and history of early India.

   • Historical Evidence: The edicts of Ashoka, inscribed on rock surfaces and pillars, are the earliest datable historical records. Major Rock Edict XIII, for example, provides a detailed account of the Kalinga War and Ashoka’s subsequent adoption of Dhamma. These inscriptions offer direct evidence of Mauryan administrative reach, foreign policy, and state ideology.
   • Evolution of Art and Architecture: The progression from simple Mauryan-era rock-cut caves like the Lomas Rishi cave in the Barabar hills, with its plain interiors and decorated facade, to the highly sophisticated chaityas and viharas at Ajanta and Ellora, demonstrates the evolution of architectural techniques and artistic expression over centuries.
   • Religious Developments: The concentration of Buddhist Chaityas and Viharas (e.g., Bhaja, Karle), Hindu temple caves (e.g., Elephanta, Ellora’s Kailasa Temple), and Jain caves (e.g., Udayagiri-Khandagiri, Ellora) provides a tangible map of the patronage and spread of these religions. The iconography within these caves illustrates the development of religious doctrines, deities, and mythologies.
   • Socio-Economic Insights: Inscriptions often found within these caves record donations from a wide cross-section of society, including kings, merchants, guilds (shrenis), and common people. This highlights the widespread public participation in religious patronage and provides data on the economic prosperity of various social groups and the importance of trade routes. Thus, rock-cut architecture serves as a durable, multi-faceted archive, illuminating aspects of early Indian life that textual sources alone cannot.

2. How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art is not at all noticeable in later times? (UPSC CSE 2017, 10 marks)

   Answer: The numismatic art of the Gupta period (c. 4th-6th centuries CE) is considered the zenith of ancient Indian coinage, an excellence not replicated in subsequent periods for several reasons.

   • Artistic and Metallurgical Finesse: Gupta coins, especially the gold dinaras, exhibit remarkable artistic merit. They feature finely engraved, realistic portraits of monarchs (e.g., Samudragupta as a lyre player, Chandragupta II as a lion-slayer) on the obverse and deities like Lakshmi on the reverse. The Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script were poetically crafted. This level of aesthetic detail and metallurgical purity declined in later periods.
   • Symbol of Imperial Power and Prosperity: The high quality and abundance of gold coins reflected the economic prosperity derived from trade and a stable, unified empire. The iconography was a powerful tool of imperial propaganda, celebrating the king’s martial prowess, piety, and patronage of the arts.
   • Decline in Later Times:
     1. Political Fragmentation: After the Guptas, the lack of a large, centralized empire led to the rise of regional powers with fewer resources, resulting in debased currency and cruder designs.
     2. Economic Disruption: The decline in long-distance trade, particularly with the Roman Empire, reduced the inflow of gold and silver. This led to a relative “paucity of coinage” in the post-Gupta era.
     3. Feudalization: The rise of a feudal system, where officials and soldiers were often paid in land grants instead of cash, reduced the need for a high-volume, high-quality currency for state disbursements. Therefore, the exceptional quality of Gupta coinage was a product of a unique confluence of political stability, economic prosperity, and artistic patronage that later periods could not replicate.

3. Ashoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as a sectarian faith. Discuss. (Based on UPSC Pattern)

   Answer: Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma, though deeply inspired by his personal faith in Buddhism, was fundamentally a non-sectarian and universal ethical code designed for the governance and moral upliftment of his diverse empire.

   • Universal Ethical Content: The core principles of Dhamma—non-violence (ahimsa), respect for elders (gurunam apachiti), kindness to servants and slaves, charity (dana), and truthfulness—are universal values found in many religious and ethical traditions, not exclusive to Buddhism.
   • Emphasis on Religious Tolerance: Ashoka’s edicts, particularly Major Rock Edict XII, explicitly call for tolerance and respect among all religious sects. He insists that one should not praise one’s own sect or denigrate others, as doing so harms both. This clearly demonstrates his intention was to promote harmony, not a single faith.
   • Absence of Core Buddhist Doctrines: The inscriptions on Dhamma conspicuously omit the core theological tenets of Buddhism, such as the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, or the concept of Nirvana. The focus is on social conduct and ethical behaviour in this world, not on metaphysical salvation.
   • Inclusivity in Patronage: While Ashoka was a generous patron of Buddhism, he also extended his support to other sects. His inscriptions mention giving donations to Brahmins and Ajivikas. For example, he dedicated the Barabar caves to Ajivika ascetics.
   • A Tool of Political Consolidation: Dhamma also served as a political ideology to unify a vast and culturally diverse empire. By promoting a common set of values that transcended regional and sectarian identities, Ashoka aimed to foster social cohesion and legitimize his rule on a moral, paternalistic basis. Therefore, Ashoka’s Dhamma should be understood not as the propagation of a sectarian religion but as a secular state policy for promoting a moral, just, and harmonious society.

4. Analyze the causes for the decline of the Mauryan Empire. Which cause do you consider the most significant? (Based on UPSC Pattern)

   Answer: The decline of the Mauryan Empire, the first great Indian imperial power, was a complex process resulting from a combination of long-term structural weaknesses and short-term triggers. Key Causes for Decline:

   1. Weak Successors and Political Instability: Ashoka’s successors lacked the vision and administrative capability to manage the vast empire. The probable division of the empire after his death fatally weakened the central authority, allowing provinces to declare independence.
   2. Economic Strain: The maintenance of a massive army and an extensive bureaucracy placed a heavy burden on the treasury. This, combined with Ashoka’s philanthropic grants, led to a financial crisis, evidenced by the debasement of currency in the later Mauryan period.
   3. Administrative and Military Weaknesses: The empire’s vast size made centralized control difficult with primitive communication. Oppressive rule by provincial governors, as noted in sources like the Divyavadana, led to popular revolts. Some scholars also argue Ashoka’s policy of non-aggression may have eroded the military’s fighting spirit.
   4. Brahminical Reaction: The theory proposed by H.P. Sastri suggests that Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism, his ban on animal sacrifices, and the judicial powers given to Mahamattas antagonized the Brahmin priestly class. This resentment culminated in the coup d’état led by the Brahmin general, Pushyamitra Shunga.

   Most Significant Cause: While all factors contributed, the political instability caused by a succession of weak rulers can be considered the most significant. A strong and capable emperor could have potentially addressed the economic challenges, curbed provincial oppression, and managed social tensions. The Mauryan state was highly centralized and personality-driven; its integrity depended on a powerful monarch. Once the central leadership faltered, the empire’s structural weaknesses—its vastness, diverse population, and internal tensions—became insurmountable, leading to its inevitable fragmentation. The final coup by Pushyamitra Shunga was merely the culmination of this internal decay, not its primary cause.

5. Critically examine the sources for the study of Mauryan history. How do they complement and contradict each other? (Based on UPSC Pattern)

   Answer: The history of the Mauryan period is constructed from a rich but varied set of sources, including literary texts, foreign accounts, and archaeological evidence. A critical examination reveals how they both complement and contradict each other.

   Major Sources:

   1. Literary Sources:
      • Kautilya’s Arthashastra: A detailed treatise on statecraft, administration, economy, and foreign policy. It provides a prescriptive, theoretical model of an ideal Mauryan state.
      • Puranas and Buddhist/Jain Texts: Works like the Puranas, Divyavadana, and Mahavamsa provide dynastic lists and narratives about rulers like Chandragupta and Ashoka, often with a religious bias.
   2. Foreign Accounts:
      • Megasthenes’ Indica: An account by the Greek ambassador to Chandragupta’s court. Although the original is lost, its fragments preserved in later Greek writings offer a valuable eyewitness perspective on Pataliputra’s administration, society, and the military.
   3. Archaeological Sources:
      • Ashokan Inscriptions: Edicts inscribed on rocks and pillars are the most authentic contemporary source, providing direct insight into Ashoka’s policies, administrative reach, and personal philosophy of Dhamma.
      • Material Remains: Punch-marked coins, pottery (especially Northern Black Polished Ware), and remnants of structures at sites like Kumrahar (Pataliputra) provide evidence of economic life and material culture.

   Complementarity and Contradiction:

   • Administration: The Arthashastra’s detailed bureaucratic hierarchy is complemented by Ashokan edicts, which name officials like Rajukas and Mahamattas. Megasthenes’ description of the Pataliputra municipal board and the military provides a parallel account, confirming a complex administrative structure.
   • Contradictions: There are notable discrepancies. For instance, Megasthenes claims that slavery did not exist in India and that land was owned by the king, which contradicts the Arthashastra’s detailed regulations for slaves (dasa) and its distinction between state (sita) and private land. Similarly, while the Arthashastra advocates for an elaborate spy system and realpolitik, Ashokan edicts promote a policy of morality and trust.

   Conclusion: No single source provides a complete picture. The Arthashastra presents an idealised framework, Indica an outsider’s observation, religious texts a hagiographical view, and Ashokan edicts a monarch’s personal ideology. A nuanced understanding of Mauryan history can only be achieved by critically comparing these sources, using archaeological evidence to ground textual claims, and acknowledging their respective biases and limitations.