GS Notes

1.2.1 - Ancient India Notes 08

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Elaborate Notes

Sources for the Guptas

  • Literary Sources:

    • Puranas: The Vayu Purana, Vishnu Purana, and Bhagavata Purana provide genealogical lists of the early Gupta rulers, helping to establish the dynastic succession from Sri Gupta to Chandragupta I. However, these accounts are often mythological and require corroboration from other sources.
    • Works of Kalidasa: Flourishing under the patronage of Chandragupta II, Kalidasa’s works offer a glimpse into the socio-cultural milieu.
      • Abhijnanashakuntalam: A celebrated play depicting the courtly life and aesthetic sensibilities of the era.
      • Raghuvamsham and Kumarasambhavam: Epic poems that, while mythological, reflect the political ideals of a universal conqueror (chakravartin), which resonated with Gupta imperial ambitions, particularly those of Samudragupta.
      • Meghadutam: A lyric poem that provides valuable geographical information about central and northern India during that period.
    • Other Contemporary Literature:
      • Vishakhadatta: His play Devichandraguptam (surviving only in fragments) narrates the episode of Ramagupta’s cowardice and Chandragupta II’s accession to the throne by killing the Saka king and marrying his brother’s wife, Dhruvadevi. His other work, Mudrarakshasa, though set in the Mauryan period, was written during the Gupta era and reflects its political thought.
      • Sudraka: His play Mrichchhakatika (“The Little Clay Cart”) provides a rare and vivid depiction of urban life, the judicial system, and the social stratification of the time, featuring characters from various walks of life, including merchants, courtesans, and thieves.
      • Kamandaka: The Nitisara, a treatise on statecraft and political ethics, is largely based on Kautilya’s Arthashastra but was composed during the Gupta period, reflecting the prevailing principles of governance.
      • Vatsyayana: The Kamasutra is a significant source for understanding the social norms, urban lifestyle, and the position of courtesans (ganikas) in Gupta society.
    • Accounts of Fa-Hien (Faxian): This Chinese Buddhist monk travelled to India between 399 and 414 AD, during the reign of Chandragupta II. In his travelogue Fo-Guo-Ji (A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms), he praised the Gupta administration for its leniency, the mildness of its penal code, the safety of its highways, and the prosperity of Pataliputra. However, his account is primarily focused on Buddhism and omits the name of the reigning emperor.

  • Epigraphic Sources (Inscriptions):

    • Prayag Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar Inscription): Composed in Sanskrit by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta. It is engraved on an Ashokan pillar. It details Samudragupta’s military campaigns, dividing his conquests into categories: rulers of Aryavarta who were violently exterminated, rulers of Dakshinapatha who were captured and then liberated (grahana-moksha-anugraha), and frontier kings and tribal republics who paid tribute. This inscription is the most important source for his reign.
    • Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription: Located in Delhi, this pillar is famed for its rust-resistant composition, a testament to Gupta-era metallurgy. Its inscription mentions a powerful king named ‘Chandra’, generally identified with Chandragupta II, and his victories in the Vanga (Bengal) region and against the Vahlikas (Bactria) across the Indus.
    • Junagadh Rock Inscription of Skandagupta: This inscription is crucial as it details the repair of the Sudarshan Lake, originally built during the Mauryan period. It also mentions Skandagupta’s victory over the Mlechchhas (generally identified with the Hunas), highlighting the threat from the northwest.
    • Udayagiri Cave Inscriptions: These inscriptions from the reign of Chandragupta II record private donations and refer to his conquests, calling him a Digvijaya (conqueror of all directions).

  • Numismatic Sources (Coins):

    • The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India, known as Dinaras. These coins are remarkable for their artistic merit and purity of gold (in the early phase).
    • They depict Gupta kings in various poses: as archers, lion-slayers (Simhavikrama type of Chandragupta II), or playing the veena (Veenavadana type of Samudragupta), which reveal their martial and cultural pursuits.
    • The reverse of the coins often features deities like Lakshmi, reflecting the Vaishnavite faith of the rulers. The issuance of silver coins began after Chandragupta II’s conquest of the Western Kshatrapas. The gradual debasement of coinage in the later Gupta period is an indicator of economic decline.

Political Developments

  • Origins: The Guptas are generally believed to have been feudatories of the Kushanas in northern India. Their origin is debated among historians; some suggest a Vaishya origin based on scriptural injunctions that the name-ending ‘Gupta’ was appropriate for this varna. Their original power base was in Magadha or eastern Uttar Pradesh.
  • Early Rulers:
    • Sri Gupta (c. 240-280 AD): The founder of the dynasty, mentioned in inscriptions as ‘Maharaja’.
    • Ghatotkacha (c. 280-319 AD): Son of Sri Gupta, also held the title ‘Maharaja’, indicating their subordinate status, likely as feudatory rulers.
  • Chandragupta I (c. 319-335 AD):
    • He is considered the first sovereign ruler of the dynasty, assuming the grand title Maharajadhiraja (king of great kings).
    • His strategic matrimonial alliance with Kumaradevi, a princess of the powerful Lichchhavi clan of Vaishali, significantly enhanced the prestige and power of the Guptas. This is commemorated on the ‘King and Queen’ type coins he issued.
    • The commencement of the Gupta Era in 319-320 AD is widely associated with his accession to the throne.
  • Samudragupta (c. 335-375 AD):
    • Referred to as the ‘Napoleon of India’ by historian V.A. Smith (1904) for his extensive military conquests detailed in the Prayag Prashasti.
    • His policies varied by region: direct annexation in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, a policy of grahana-moksha-anugraha (capture and release) in the south, and reducing frontier states and tribal republics to vassalage.
    • His empire’s direct control extended from the Ravi in the west to the Brahmaputra in the east, and from the Himalayas in the north to the Narmada in the south.
    • He performed the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) to proclaim his imperial sovereignty, issuing coins to commemorate the event.
    • A patron of arts and literature, he was an accomplished poet and musician, earning the title Kaviraj (king of poets). His coins depicting him playing the veena attest to his musical skills.
    • Though a devout Vaishnava, he was tolerant of other faiths, patronizing the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu and granting permission to the Sinhalese king Meghavarman to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya.
  • Chandragupta II ‘Vikramaditya’ (c. 376-414 AD):
    • His reign is often considered the zenith of the Gupta Empire.
    • He achieved significant military success by defeating the Western Kshatrapas (Sakas), annexing their territories in western Malwa and Gujarat. This gave the Guptas control over the lucrative western sea ports like Broach (Bharuch), boosting trade with the West.
    • After this victory, he adopted the title Vikramaditya (Sun of Valour). Ujjain, the former Saka capital, became a secondary capital and a major cultural hub.
    • His diplomatic and matrimonial alliances were crucial. He married Kuberanaga of the Naga dynasty and married his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty in the Deccan. This Vakataka alliance secured his southern flank during his campaign against the Sakas.
    • His court at Ujjain was supposedly adorned by the Navaratnas (Nine Gems), a group of eminent scholars and artists, including Kalidasa.
  • Kumaragupta I (c. 415-455 AD):
    • He enjoyed a long reign of peace and prosperity, maintaining the vast empire inherited from his father. He adopted titles like Mahendraditya.
    • His most significant achievement was the foundation of the Nalanda Mahavihara, which later became a world-renowned centre of Buddhist learning.
    • Towards the end of his reign, the empire faced its first major challenge from the Pushyamitras, a tribe on the Narmada, and the initial invasions of the Hunas from Central Asia. These threats were repulsed by his son, Skandagupta.
  • Skandagupta (c. 455-467 AD):
    • He is celebrated as the ‘saviour of India’ for successfully thwarting the early, fierce invasions of the Hunas, a feat recorded in the Bhitari Pillar Inscription.
    • The Junagadh inscription details his efforts in public works, notably the repair of the Sudarshan Lake in Saurashtra.
    • Despite his initial successes, the continuous pressure from the Hunas drained the imperial treasury, which is reflected in the debasement of his coinage. His death marked the beginning of the empire’s decline.

Reasons for the Decline of the Gupta Empire

  • Hun Invasions: The repeated invasions of the Hunas (Hephthalites) from Central Asia proved to be the most significant external factor. Though Skandagupta had initially repelled them, they returned under chiefs like Toramana and his son Mihirakula in the early 6th century. Mihirakula, portrayed as a cruel tyrant in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (12th century), established his rule over parts of northern India, dealing a severe blow to Gupta authority and economy.
  • Rise of Feudatories and Regional Kingdoms: The Gupta administrative practice of granting land to officials and Brahmins, coupled with a decentralized structure, led to the rise of powerful feudatories (samantas). As central authority weakened after Skandagupta, governors of provinces and vassal chiefs began to assert their independence. Notable examples include Yashodharman of Malwa (who defeated Mihirakula but also challenged Gupta sovereignty), the Pushyabhutis of Thanesar, the Maukharis of Kannauj, and the Maitrakas of Vallabhi.
  • Economic Decline:
    • The loss of western India to the Hunas deprived the Guptas of the revenues from the rich trade passing through the western ports.
    • The continuous warfare with the Hunas strained the state’s resources.
    • This economic stress is evident in the coinage of later Gupta rulers, which shows a marked decline in gold purity and artistic quality. Very few gold coins were issued by later rulers.
    • As noted by historian R.S. Sharma in Indian Feudalism (1965), the decline of long-distance trade with the Roman Empire (after its fall) and the subsequent decline of urban centres contributed to a more agrarian, feudalised economy.

Administration under the Gupta Empire

  • Administrative Divisions: The empire was systematically divided for efficient governance, marking a shift towards a more decentralized model compared to the Mauryas.
    • Empire: Samrajya
    • Provinces: Bhukti or Desha, governed by an Uparika, often a prince (Kumar).
    • Districts: Vishaya, administered by a Vishayapati. The Vishayapati was often appointed by the Uparika or sometimes directly by the king.
    • District Administration Board (Adhishthana-adhikarana): The Vishayapati was assisted by a board of non-governmental representatives in urban centres, which included the Nagarasreshthin (chief of the city’s merchant guild), Sarthavaha (leader of the merchant caravans), Prathamakulika (chief artisan), and Prathama-kayastha (chief scribe). This indicates a significant level of local participation in administration.
    • Sub-districts: Vithi, which was a unit consisting of several villages.
    • Village: Grama, the lowest unit of administration, headed by a Gramika or Gramadhyaksha.
  • Central Officials:
    • Kumaramatyas: A cadre of high-ranking officials from which important ministers, governors, and generals were chosen.
    • Sandhivigrahika: The minister for peace and war (foreign affairs), a post held by Harisena under Samudragupta.
    • Mahadandanayaka: Chief judicial officer or a high-ranking military commander.
  • Feudal Elements:
    • The practice of granting land revenue and, in some cases, administrative rights to Brahmins (Brahmadeya, Agrahara) and secular officers became more prominent. This created a class of intermediaries between the state and the peasantry.
    • Vishti (forced labour) became more common than in the Mauryan period. Villagers were obligated to provide unpaid labour to the king and his officials when they passed through, which is seen as a sign of the increasing subjection of the peasantry.
    • The presence of powerful feudatories (samantas) who paid tribute and provided military support, but governed their territories with considerable autonomy, was a key feature of the Gupta polity.

Economy during the Gupta Age

  • Coinage:
    • Gold Coins (Dinaras): Issued extensively by early rulers like Samudragupta and Chandragupta II, they were crucial for large transactions and potentially for paying high-level officials. Their weight was initially based on the Roman denarius.
    • Silver Coins: Introduced by Chandragupta II for local exchange, particularly in the newly conquered western territories, following the Saka model.
    • Copper Coins: Relatively rare, suggesting a possible rise in the use of cowrie shells for day-to-day transactions, as mentioned by Fa-Hien.
  • Trade: While some historians like R.S. Sharma argue for a decline in long-distance trade, especially with the West, evidence suggests that inland trade flourished. The conquest of western India opened up sea routes via ports like Bharuch, Sopara, and Kalyan. Key trade items included spices, silk, cotton, ivory, and pearls.
  • Agriculture and Land System:
    • Agriculture was the backbone of the economy. The state derived its primary revenue from a land tax, typically one-sixth of the produce (bhaga).
    • The Niti Sastras of this period elaborate on different types of land:
      • Kshetra: Cultivable land.
      • Khila: Waste, uncultivable land.
      • Aprahata: Jungle or forest land.
      • Vasti: Habitable land.
      • Gapata-sarah: Pasture land.
    • Land Grants: The practice of granting land became widespread.
      • Agrahara grants: Given to Brahmins, these were tax-free and often perpetual and hereditary.
      • Devagrahara grants: Given to temples and monasteries for their upkeep. These grants contributed to the expansion of agriculture into new areas but also weakened the direct control of the central authority.
  • Guilds (Shrenis):
    • Guilds of artisans, merchants, and bankers were highly developed and played a vital role in the urban economy.
    • They had their own laws and regulations (shreni-dharma), which were generally respected by the state.
    • They also functioned as banks, accepting deposits and providing loans on interest. The Mandasor inscription of Kumaragupta I mentions a guild of silk-weavers who migrated from Lata (Gujarat) to Dasapura (Mandasor) and even built a magnificent sun temple.

Prelims Pointers

  • Founder of Gupta Dynasty: Sri Gupta (Title: Maharaja).
  • First Sovereign Ruler: Chandragupta I (Title: Maharajadhiraja).
  • Start of Gupta Era: 319-320 AD, associated with Chandragupta I’s accession.
  • Matrimonial Alliance (Chandragupta I): Married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
  • Prayag Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar): Composed by Harisena for Samudragupta.
  • ‘Napoleon of India’: Samudragupta, a title given by V.A. Smith.
  • ‘Kaviraj’ (King of Poets): Title of Samudragupta.
  • Veena-player on Coins: Samudragupta is depicted playing the veena on his coins.
  • Patron of Vasubandhu: Samudragupta patronised this Buddhist scholar.
  • Chinese Pilgrim (Chandragupta II’s reign): Fa-Hien (Faxian).
  • Titles of Chandragupta II: Vikramaditya, Simhavikram, Sakari.
  • Navaratnas (Nine Gems): Adorned the court of Chandragupta II. Key members: Kalidasa, Varahamihira, Amarasimha, Dhanvantari.
  • Vakataka Alliance: Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Vakataka king Rudrasena II.
  • Founder of Nalanda University: Kumaragupta I.
  • Repairer of Sudarshan Lake: Skandagupta (mentioned in Junagadh Inscription).
  • Repeller of Huna Invasion: Skandagupta (mentioned in Bhitari Pillar Inscription).
  • Huna Leaders: Toramana and Mihirakula.
  • Gupta Gold Coins: Called Dinaras.
  • Gupta Administration Hierarchy: Bhukti (Province) > Vishaya (District) > Vithi > Grama (Village).
  • Provincial Governor: Uparika.
  • District Head: Vishayapati.
  • Forced Labour: Known as Vishti.
  • Guilds of merchants/artisans: Called Shreni.
  • Land granted to Brahmins: Agrahara or Brahmadeya.
  • Key Literary Works:
    1. Abhijnanashakuntalam: Kalidasa
    2. Mrichchhakatika: Sudraka
    3. Devichandraguptam: Vishakhadatta
    4. Panchasiddhantika: Varahamihira
    5. Amarakosha: Amarasimha

Mains Insights

The ‘Golden Age’ of Ancient India: A Historiographical Debate

The characterization of the Gupta period as a “Golden Age” was popularised by nationalist historians in the early 20th century to instill pride in India’s past. While there were remarkable achievements, this view has been critically re-examined by later historians.

  • Arguments for a ‘Golden Age’:

    1. Political Unity and Stability: The Guptas established a large, unified empire that ensured relative peace and prosperity for over a century, creating a conducive environment for cultural and scientific progress.
    2. Cultural Efflorescence: This period witnessed a peak in classical Sanskrit literature (Kalidasa), art (Ajanta murals, Sarnath Buddha), temple architecture (nascent Nagara style at Deogarh), and sculpture.
    3. Scientific and Technological Advancements: There were significant strides in mathematics (concept of zero, decimal system), astronomy (Aryabhata, Varahamihira), medicine (advances in Ayurveda), and metallurgy (Mehrauli Iron Pillar).
    4. Economic Prosperity: The issuance of a large number of gold coins and accounts of prosperity from travellers like Fa-Hien point towards a flourishing economy, at least for the elite.

  • Critique and Counter-arguments (led by scholars like R.S. Sharma):

    1. Rise of Feudalism: The practice of land grants created a class of intermediaries, leading to the decentralization of power and the subjection of the peasantry. The increase in Vishti (forced labour) reflects the exploitation of the lower classes.
    2. Social Rigidity and Inequality: The caste system became more rigid, and the condition of Shudras and untouchables (Chandalas) worsened. Fa-Hien notes that Chandalas had to live outside the city and strike a piece of wood on entering to announce their presence.
    3. Decline of Urban Centres: Archaeological evidence suggests a decline in many urban centres that had thrived in the Kushan period. This points to a decline in trade and a shift towards a more agrarian, self-sufficient village economy.
    4. Elitist Perspective: The ‘Golden Age’ narrative is largely based on elite courtly culture and Sanskrit literature, ignoring the conditions of the vast majority of the population. The prosperity was not uniformly distributed.

Conclusion: The Gupta period was not a universal ‘Golden Age’ but rather a ‘Classical Age’ for northern India, marked by a peak in elite culture and Brahmanical norms. It was a period of great achievements but also of growing social inequalities and the emergence of a feudal state structure that would define early medieval India.

Gupta Polity: A Shift from Centralized to Decentralized Model

  • Cause-Effect Relationship:
    • Cause: The vastness of the empire and the need to integrate diverse local polities.
    • Mechanism: The Guptas adopted a policy of allowing defeated kings to rule as feudatories (samantas) and granting land with administrative rights (agrahara).
    • Effect: This created a decentralized administrative structure, contrasting sharply with the highly centralized Mauryan bureaucracy. While this model was effective for managing a large empire initially, it contained the seeds of its own destruction, as powerful feudatories eventually declared independence when the central authority weakened.
  • Comparison with Mauryan Administration:
    • Mauryan: Highly centralized, large paid bureaucracy, state control over most economic activities, powerful spy system.
    • Gupta: Decentralized, smaller bureaucracy (Kumaramatyas), significant role for local bodies (e.g., district boards), feudatories with considerable autonomy, less direct state control over the economy. The Gupta state was more of a manager of existing power structures than a direct administrator at the grassroots level.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC Prelims 2023)

    1. Bhilsa - Madhya Pradesh
    2. Dwarasamudra - Maharashtra
    3. Girinagar - Gujarat
    4. Sthanesvara - Uttar Pradesh How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

    Answer: (b) Only two. Explanation: Bhilsa (Vidisha) is in Madhya Pradesh (Correct). Dwarasamudra (Halebidu) is in Karnataka, not Maharashtra (Incorrect). Girinagar (Junagadh) is in Gujarat (Correct). Sthanesvara (Thanesar) is in Haryana, not Uttar Pradesh (Incorrect). Girinagar is famously associated with the Skandagupta’s Junagadh inscription.*

  2. With reference to Indian history, who of the following were known as “Kulah-Daran”? (UPSC Prelims 2022) (a) Arab merchants (b) Qalandars (c) Persian calligraphists (d) Sayyids

    Answer: (d) Sayyids. Explanation: While not directly from the Gupta period, this type of question tests knowledge of specific historical terms across different eras. A relevant Gupta-era question could be about a term like ‘Vishti’ or ‘Dinaras’.

  3. From the decline of Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early seventh century, which of the following kingdoms were holding power in Northern India? (UPSC Prelims 2021)

    1. The Guptas of Magadha
    2. The Paramaras of Malwa
    3. The Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
    4. The Maukharis of Kanauj
    5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
    6. The Maitrakas of Valabhi Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1, 2 and 5 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 5 and 6 only

    Answer: (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only. Explanation: After the main Gupta line declined, a later Gupta dynasty continued in Magadha. The Paramaras and Yadavas were much later dynasties. The Pushyabhutis, Maukharis, and Maitrakas were the key powers that rose immediately after the decline of the imperial Guptas.*

  4. With reference to the period of Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaul were well known as (UPSC Prelims 2020) (a) ports handling foreign trade (b) capitals of powerful kingdoms (c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture (d) important Buddhist pilgrimage centres

    Answer: (a) ports handling foreign trade. Explanation: These were important port towns on the eastern and western coasts of India, facilitating maritime trade during and after the Gupta period.

  5. With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term ‘paramitas’? (UPSC Prelims 2020) (a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts written in aphoristic (sutra) style. (b) Philosophical schools that did not accept the authority of Vedas. (c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path. (d) Powerful merchant guilds of early medieval South India.

    Answer: (c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path. Explanation: This question relates to the broader cultural and religious context of ancient India, including the Gupta period when Mahayana Buddhism was prominent.

Mains

  1. The Gupta period is often called the ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India. Do you agree with this view? Give reasons in support of your answer. (GS Paper I - Model Question)

    Answer: The characterization of the Gupta period (c. 4th to 6th century AD) as the ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India is a subject of historical debate. While it was undoubtedly a period of significant achievements, a critical analysis reveals a more nuanced picture.

    Arguments Supporting the ‘Golden Age’ Thesis:

    • Political Unification: The Guptas provided political stability over a large part of the Indian subcontinent, creating an environment conducive to progress after centuries of fragmentation post-Mauryan decline.
    • Cultural Zenith: The era witnessed a flourishing of classical Sanskrit literature, with Kalidasa’s plays and poems setting a standard for centuries. Art and architecture reached new heights, exemplified by the serene Buddha images from Sarnath, the exquisite murals of Ajanta, and the emergence of structural temple architecture like the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.
    • Scientific Advancement: There were revolutionary developments in mathematics and astronomy. Aryabhata discussed the concept of zero, the value of pi, and the heliocentric theory. Varahamihira made significant contributions to astronomy and astrology. The Mehrauli iron pillar stands as a testament to their advanced metallurgical skills.
    • Benign Administration: The account of Chinese traveler Fa-Hien suggests a prosperous empire with a lenient penal code, safe highways, and an efficient administration.

    Counter-arguments and Critical Perspectives:

    • Emergence of Feudalism: The widespread practice of land grants (agrahara and devagrahara) created a class of powerful intermediaries and led to a decentralized, feudal polity. This increased the subjection of the peasantry, as seen in the prevalence of forced labor (vishti).
    • Increased Social Stratification: The caste system became more rigid. The Puranas and Smritis of this period reinforced Varna hierarchy. The condition of untouchables (chandalas) worsened, with Fa-Hien noting their social ostracization.
    • Elitist Nature of the ‘Golden Age’: The celebrated achievements in literature, art, and science were largely a product of the elite courtly culture and did not reflect the condition of the common masses. The prosperity described was not uniformly distributed.
    • Economic Contradictions: While early Gupta rulers issued a large number of gold coins, later coinage shows debasement, and archaeological evidence points to the decay of some urban centers, suggesting economic stress in the later period.

    Conclusion: To label the entire Gupta period as a ‘Golden Age’ would be an oversimplification. It is more accurately described as a ‘Classical Age,’ which saw the culmination and crystallization of various cultural, scientific, and political trends. While it was a period of remarkable achievements for the elite, it also witnessed the institutionalization of social inequalities and the emergence of a feudal economic structure that had profound implications for the subsequent course of Indian history.

  2. Assess the contribution of the Gupta period to the development of Indian science and technology. (GS Paper I - Model Question)

  3. Explain the main features of the Gupta administration. How was it different from the Mauryan administration? (GS Paper I - Model Question)

  4. The art and architecture of the Gupta period represent a turning point in Indian cultural history. Elaborate. (GS Paper I - Model Question)

  5. Discuss the social and economic conditions in India as described by the Chinese traveler Fa-Hien during his visit. How do these accounts help in reconstructing the history of the Gupta period? (GS Paper I - Model Question)

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