1.2.1 - Ancient India Notes 09

Elaborate Notes

Gupta Empire: Economy, Society, and Religion

• Taxation System: The Gupta state’s revenue was primarily derived from a complex system of land taxes and other levies, detailed in contemporary inscriptions and Smriti literature like the Narada Smriti. This system reflects a well-organized and differentiated revenue administration.
  • Bhaga: The principal land tax, typically amounting to one-sixth of the agricultural produce. This was a traditional and widely accepted rate, mentioned even in earlier texts like the Arthashastra.
  • Bhoga: A periodic levy consisting of perishable goods like fruits, flowers, firewood, and vegetables, which the villagers were obligated to supply to the king and his officials when they passed through the area.
  • Bali: Originally a voluntary offering to the king in the Vedic period, it seems to have evolved into a compulsory, possibly oppressive, tax by the Gupta era. The exact nature of ‘Bali’ in this period is debated by historians like U.N. Ghoshal, who suggests it may have been an additional cess.
  • Udranga: This tax is often interpreted as a police tax or a water tax. Its precise nature is unclear, but it was a levy on permanent tenants.
  • Uparikara: An extra cess or tax levied on temporary tenants, indicating a distinction in the tax burden based on land tenure.
  • Hiranya: Literally meaning ‘gold’, this was a tax paid in cash. It was likely levied on commercial crops or certain special produces, unlike Bhaga which was paid in kind.
  • Vata-Bhuta: A tax for the maintenance of rites performed for winds (vata) and spirits (bhuta), reflecting the intertwining of state revenue with popular religious beliefs.
  • Shulka: Customs or toll tax collected at ports, ferries, and frontiers on goods being imported, exported, or transported within the empire.
  • Klipta and Upaklipta: Specific taxes related to the sale and purchase of land, indicating state regulation of land transactions.
• Agricultural Investment: The Gupta state actively promoted agriculture. The Junagadh rock inscription of Skandagupta provides a famous example of state intervention, detailing the repair of the Sudarshana lake and its embankments (badhaya) and canals (khare) by his provincial governor, Parnadatta. This demonstrates a clear understanding of the importance of irrigation for agricultural productivity and state revenue.
• Trade and Commerce:
  • Traders: Society had a well-defined mercantile class. The Sresthi was a wealthy, typically urban-based merchant or banker who often headed trade guilds (nigamas). The Sarthavaha was the leader of a caravan of traders (sartha) who engaged in long-distance overland trade.
  • Trade Routes and Ports: While trade with the Roman Empire had declined compared to the post-Mauryan era, maritime trade with Southeast Asia flourished. Important ports on the western coast included Barygaza (Bharuch), Kalyana, and Chaul. On the eastern coast, ports like Tamralipti (in Bengal), Ghantasala, Kadura, Salapatna, and Nalapatna were crucial for trade with regions like Suvarnabhumi (Southeast Asia) and Ceylon (Sri Lanka).

Society and Religion under the Guptas

• Social Structure:
  • Proliferation of Castes: The Gupta period witnessed a significant increase in the number of castes (jatis). This was a result of several processes:
    1. Assimilation: The integration of foreign groups like the Hunas, Sakas, and Kushanas into Indian society, often as Kshatriyas.
    2. Acculturation: The absorption of indigenous tribal communities into the Brahmanical fold, where they were assigned a specific jati status, usually at the lower end of the hierarchy.
    3. Varna-sankara: The concept of mixed castes arising from inter-varna marriages, as theorized in the Dharmashastras.
  • Position of Shudras: There was a marked improvement in the condition of the Shudras. As noted by historian R.S. Sharma in his work Sudras in Ancient India (1958), they were increasingly represented as peasants, artisans, and agricultural labourers, rather than just slaves serving the upper three varnas. They were also permitted to listen to the epics and Puranas and worship Krishna.
  • Untouchability: The practice of untouchability became more rigid. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien, who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, provides a vivid account of the Chandalas. He notes that they lived in segregated settlements outside the main city, had to strike a piece of wood on entering a town to announce their presence so that others could avoid them, and performed ‘impure’ tasks like handling dead bodies and serving as executioners.
• Status of Women:
  • The status of women, particularly of the upper varnas, declined. They were increasingly seen as subordinate to men and were denied access to formal education and property rights (except Stridhana - gifts received during marriage over which they had some control).
  • The first epigraphic evidence of the practice of Sati (self-immolation of a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre) is found in the Eran Inscription of 510 AD, which records the immolation of the wife of Goparaja, a general of Bhanugupta.
  • While some texts like the Narada Smriti permitted widow remarriage under specific circumstances, the practice was generally discouraged. The custom of Niyoga (levirate), prevalent in the Vedic period, was forbidden.
• Religion and Philosophy:
  • Brahmanical Renaissance: The period is marked by the ascendancy of Brahmanical Hinduism, particularly Vaishnavism and Shaivism. The Gupta kings were predominantly Vaishnavas (worshippers of Vishnu) and used titles like Paramabhagavata. Their royal emblem was the Garuda.
  • Literary Developments: The great epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, are believed to have been given their final form during this period. The Puranas were also compiled. The dominant literary language was Sanskrit. The Gupta-Brahmi script used in this era evolved into the Siddhamatrika script, which is an ancestor of many modern North Indian scripts, including Devanagari.
  • Rise of Tantrism: This period saw the nascent development of Tantrism, a set of esoteric traditions emphasizing ritual, mantra, and yogic practices, within both Hinduism (Shaktism) and Buddhism. The development of Vajrayana Buddhism, with its complex pantheon and rituals, is heavily influenced by Tantric ideas.
  • Religious Tolerance: Despite their personal faith, the Gupta rulers were largely tolerant of other religions. Kumaragupta I, for instance, is credited with the foundation of the great Buddhist monastery at Nalanda. However, royal patronage for Buddhism declined compared to earlier periods, leading to its gradual wane in the Gangetic heartland.
  • Temple Architecture: Idol worship in free-standing stone temples became a common feature. This period marks the beginning of temple architecture in India, with early examples like the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the Vishnu temple at Tigawa.

Mauryan Empire vs. Gupta Empire: A Comparison

Feature	Mauryan Empire (c. 322–185 BCE)	Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE)
Administration	Highly centralized. Kautilya’s Arthashastra details an elaborate bureaucracy with numerous departments (tirthas) and superintendents (adhyakshas).	Decentralized, with features of feudalism. Local administration was left to provincial governors, feudatories (samantas), and village councils.
Territorial Extent	Pan-Indian empire, covering almost the entire subcontinent except the extreme south.	Primarily a North Indian empire. While it held sway over a large area, its direct control was less extensive than the Mauryas’.
Bureaucracy	Extensive and salaried. The state paid its officials in cash (pana).	Less elaborate. Officials were often granted land revenue (bhogas) instead of cash salaries, a practice that weakened central control.
Judicial System	Kautilya mentions two types of courts: Dharmasthiya (for civil disputes) and Kantakashodhana (for criminal cases and threats to the state).	More developed and clearly demarcated. Texts like the Narada Smriti provide detailed laws on property, inheritance, and contracts, with a clearer distinction between civil and criminal law.
Taxation	Stringent and state-controlled. The state exercised a monopoly over mines, forests, and other resources, leading to a heavy tax burden.	Relatively liberal. The primary tax was the bhaga (1/6th of produce). The state’s direct control over the economy was less pervasive.
Art & Architecture	Primarily court art, characterized by monumentalism (e.g., Ashokan Pillars, Barabar Caves). Stupas were major religious structures.	Marks the beginning of classical Indian temple architecture (Nagara style). Characterized by iconic religious sculpture (Sarnath School) and cave paintings (Ajanta).
Cultural Flourishing	Significant contributions, but not considered a “classical age”.	Regarded as the “Golden Age” of ancient India for its remarkable achievements in Sanskrit literature (Kalidasa), science (Aryabhata, Varahamihira), and art.
State Religion	Rulers had diverse personal faiths (Chandragupta - Jainism; Ashoka - Buddhism). State policy was often marked by religious pluralism.	Rulers were predominantly Vaishnavas, leading to a Hindu renaissance. However, they were generally tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.

The Reign of Harshavardhana (c. 606–647 CE)

• Sources:
  • Harshacharita: A biographical work by Banabhatta, Harsha’s court poet. While rich in detail, it is a panegyric and needs to be corroborated with other sources.
  • Si-Yu-Ki (Record of the Western Regions): The travelogue of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), who spent about 15 years in India, much of it in Harsha’s domains. It offers a valuable, though sometimes laudatory, outsider’s perspective on the administration, society, and religion of the time.
  • Inscriptions: The Madhuban and Banskhera copper plate inscriptions detail land grants made by Harsha. The Aihole inscription of the Chalukya king Pulakesin II, composed by Ravikirti, provides the Chalukyan perspective on the famous battle with Harsha.
• Political History:
  • Harsha belonged to the Pushyabhuti dynasty of Sthaneshvara (modern Thanesar, Haryana).
  • His accession to the throne at the age of 16 was tumultuous. His sister Rajyashri’s husband, Grahavarman of Kannauj, was killed by Devagupta of Malwa. His elder brother, Rajyavardhana, was treacherously murdered by Shashanka, the king of Gauda (Bengal), while on a campaign to avenge Grahavarman.
  • Harsha consolidated his power, merged the kingdoms of Sthaneshvara and Kannauj, and shifted his capital to the strategically important city of Kannauj.
  • He undertook extensive military campaigns, earning the title Sakalottarapathanatha (Lord of the entire northern region).
  • His ambition to expand into the Deccan was decisively checked by Pulakesin II of the Chalukya dynasty. The Aihole inscription proudly records this victory, stating that Harsha’s harsha (joy) melted away in the face of the Chalukyan elephant army. The Narmada river became the effective southern boundary of his empire.
• Administration and Society:
  • Harsha’s administration was feudal in character. He rewarded his high-ranking officials with land grants instead of cash salaries.
  • Xuanzang records that the kingdom was divided into provinces, divisions, districts, and villages. He notes that the government was efficient but punishments for crimes were severe.
  • The land tax was relatively high, with Xuanzang mentioning it as one-fourth of the produce, though some scholars believe it was the traditional one-sixth.
  • Key Officials: Avanti (Minister of War and Peace), Simhanada (Commander-in-Chief), Kuntala (Chief of Cavalry), Skandagupta (Chief of Elephant Forces).
• Religion and Culture:
  • Harsha was initially a devotee of Shiva but later became a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism, likely under the influence of Xuanzang.
  • He convened a grand assembly at Kannauj to honour Xuanzang and expound the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism.
  • He also organized the Mahamoksha Parishad, a quinquennial religious festival at Prayag (Allahabad), where he would donate his accumulated wealth to religious figures of all faiths and the poor.
  • He was a generous patron of the Nalanda University.
  • Harsha was an accomplished author himself, credited with writing three Sanskrit plays: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, and Nagananda.

The Pallavas of Kanchipuram (c. 6th–9th Century CE)

• Origin and Political History:
  • The Pallavas rose to prominence in the Tondaimandalam region with their capital at Kanchipuram, after the decline of the Satavahanas and the defeat of the Kalabhras, a mysterious dynasty that disrupted the political order in the Tamil country between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE.
  • Simhavishnu (c. 575-600 CE) is considered the real founder of the later Pallava dynasty, who defeated the Kalabhras and established firm Pallava rule.
  • Mahendravarman I (c. 600-630 CE): A versatile genius, he was a patron of arts, author of the Sanskrit farce Mattavilasa Prahasana. He initiated the Pallava style of rock-cut temple architecture. His reign was marked by the beginning of the long and gruelling Pallava-Chalukya conflict, during which he lost territory to Pulakesin II.
  • Narasimhavarman I (c. 630-668 CE): The greatest of the Pallavas. He avenged his father’s defeat by decisively defeating and possibly killing Pulakesin II in 642 CE. He sacked the Chalukyan capital Vatapi (Badami) and assumed the title Vatapikonda (Conqueror of Vatapi). He also founded the port city of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram).
  • The Pallava-Chalukya rivalry continued with fluctuating fortunes for subsequent rulers. The kingdom eventually declined due to internal strife and pressure from the rising Pandyas and Rashtrakutas.
  • The last Pallava king, Aparajitavarman, was defeated and killed by Aditya I of the Chola dynasty in the late 9th century, leading to the annexation of the Pallava kingdom.
• Significance and Contributions:
  • Architecture: The Pallavas were pioneers of Dravidian temple architecture. Their architectural evolution can be divided into four stages:
    1. Mahendra Style: Rock-cut cave temples (mandapas), characterized by simple, massive pillars.
    2. Mamalla Style: Monolithic temples carved from single rocks, known as rathas (e.g., the Pancha Pandava Rathas at Mahabalipuram), and more ornate mandapas featuring exquisite sculptures like the Arjuna’s Penance bas-relief.
    3. Rajasimha Style: Structural temples built of stone blocks, such as the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
    4. Nandivarman Style: Smaller-scale structural temples, representing a later phase.
  • Religion: Their reign coincided with the rise of the Bhakti movement in the Tamil country. The devotional hymns of the Vaishnavite saints (Alvars) and Shaivite saints (Nayanars) flourished, popularizing a more personal and emotional form of Hinduism.
  • Society and Learning: They were patrons of Brahmanism and made extensive land grants to Brahmins, known as Brahmadeya and Agrahara, which facilitated the spread of Sanskrit culture in the South. Kanchipuram became a great center of Sanskrit learning, home to the famous ghatika (college) and scholars like Dandin. Both Sanskrit and Tamil literature were patronized.

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Prelims Pointers

• Gupta Taxes:
  • Bhaga: King’s share of produce (1/6th).
  • Bhoga: Periodic supply of fruits, flowers, etc.
  • Udranga: Police tax or water tax.
  • Uparikara: Tax on temporary tenants.
  • Hiranya: Tax paid in cash (gold).
  • Shulka: Customs/Toll tax.
• Gupta Traders:
  • Sresthi: Settled merchant/banker.
  • Sarthavaha: Caravan trader/leader.
• Gupta Ports: Kalyana, Chaul (West coast); Tamralipti, Ghantasala (East coast).
• Society:
  • First epigraphic evidence of Sati: Eran Inscription (510 AD).
  • Stridhana: A woman’s property received as gifts during marriage.
  • Chandalas: Mentioned by Fa-Hien as living outside cities.
• Script: Gupta-Brahmi evolved into Siddhamatrika script.
• Harshavardhana:
  • Dynasty: Pushyabhuti of Sthaneshvara.
  • Capital: Shifted from Sthaneshvara to Kannauj.
  • Sources: Banabhatta’s Harshacharita, Xuanzang’s Si-Yu-Ki.
  • Defeated by: Pulakesin II (Chalukya king) on the banks of the Narmada.
  • Literary Works: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, Nagananda (Sanskrit plays).
  • Chinese Pilgrim: Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) visited during his reign.
• Pallavas:
  • Capital: Kanchipuram.
  • Greatest Ruler: Narasimhavarman I.
  • Title: Vatapikonda (Conqueror of Vatapi) was assumed by Narasimhavarman I.
  • Architecture: Pioneers of Dravidian style.
  • Key Sites: Mahabalipuram (Shore Temple, Pancha Rathas), Kanchipuram (Kailasanatha Temple).
  • Sanskrit Farce by Mahendravarman I: Mattavilasa Prahasana.
  • Religious Movement: Bhakti movement (Alvars and Nayanars).
  • Last Ruler: Aparajitavarman, defeated by Chola king Aditya I.

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Mains Insights

• The “Golden Age” Debate: The characterization of the Gupta period as a “Golden Age” is a historiographical debate.
  • Arguments For: The period witnessed unprecedented achievements in art (Ajanta paintings, Sarnath school of sculpture), architecture (first free-standing temples), literature (Kalidasa), science, and mathematics (Aryabhata, Varahamihira). There was political stability over a large part of North India and a flourishing of Puranic Hinduism.
  • Arguments Against (Counter-view): This “golden” image largely reflects the life of the urban elite and the royal court. The condition of the lower strata, especially the Chandalas as described by Fa-Hien, was deplorable. The practice of Sati emerged, and the status of women declined. The economy was becoming more feudal and agrarian, with a decline in long-distance trade and urban centers, a thesis strongly argued by historian R.S. Sharma. Therefore, the “Golden Age” was not uniformly golden for all sections of society.
• Shift in Polity: Mauryan Centralization to Gupta Decentralization:
  • Cause: The Mauryan state’s tight control over the economy and society was difficult to sustain over a vast empire. The Gupta polity emerged in a different context, relying on a network of feudatories (samantas) and granting land to officials instead of salaries.
  • Effect: This decentralization led to a weaker central authority compared to the Mauryas. While it allowed for significant cultural and regional autonomy, it also contained the seeds of political fragmentation. The post-Gupta period is characterized by the rise of these very feudatories as independent regional powers. This administrative structure is often seen as a precursor to Indian feudalism.
• Harshavardhana: An Assessment: Harsha is often called the “last great Hindu emperor of ancient India.”
  • Analysis: This statement is problematic. His empire was not as extensive as the Mauryas or Guptas, and his control over his feudatories was tenuous. His empire disintegrated immediately after his death, indicating a lack of institutional coherence. Furthermore, he was a devout Buddhist in his later life. The label “Hindu emperor” oversimplifies his religious patronage and the pluralistic religious environment of the time. His reign is better understood as a brilliant but transient attempt to re-establish imperial unity in a post-Gupta era of political fragmentation.
• Pallavas as a Cultural Bridge:
  • The Pallavas played a crucial role in synthesizing northern and southern cultural traditions. They patronized Sanskrit, making it the court language and the medium of their inscriptions, which helped spread Aryan cultural norms in the South.
  • Simultaneously, they laid the foundations for a distinct southern cultural identity through their pioneering contributions to Dravidian architecture and the patronage of the Tamil Bhakti movement. Their rule thus represents a period of creative synthesis, the legacy of which was inherited and magnified by the Imperial Cholas. The Pallava-Chalukya conflict, while politically destructive, led to a vibrant cultural exchange in art and architecture between the Deccan and the Tamil country.

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Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. With reference to the period of Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantashala, Kadura and Chaul were well known as (UPSC Prelims 2020) (a) ports handling foreign trade (b) capitals of powerful kingdoms (c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture (d) important Buddhist pilgrimage centres

   Answer: (a) ports handling foreign trade. Explanation: As mentioned in historical sources, Ghantasala and Kadura were important ports on the eastern coast, and Chaul was a significant port on the western coast during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, facilitating maritime trade.

2. With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC Prelims 2020)

   1. Aurang - In-charge of treasury of the State
   2. Banian - Indian agent of the East India Company
   3. Mirasidar - Designated revenue payer to the State

   Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only. Explanation: While this question is from the medieval/modern period, it shows how UPSC asks about specific historical terms. A similar question could be framed for ancient terms like Sresthi or Sarthavaha. ‘Aurang’ is a Persian term for a warehouse.

3. From the decline of Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early seventh century, which of the following kingdoms were holding power in Northern India? (UPSC Prelims 2021)

   1. The Guptas of Magadha
   2. The Paramaras of Malwa
   3. The Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
   4. The Maukharis of Kanauj
   5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
   6. The Maitrakas of Valabhi

   Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 5 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 5 and 6 only

   Answer: (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only. Explanation: After the main Gupta line declined, the Later Guptas continued in Magadha. The Pushyabhutis (Harsha’s family), Maukharis (of Kannauj), and Maitrakas were major powers. The Paramaras and Yadavas were much later, medieval dynasties.

4. In ancient India, which dynasty’s rule has been described as the ‘Golden Age’? (Similar concept tested frequently) (a) Mauryas (b) Guptas (c) Kushans (d) Satavahanas

   Answer: (b) Guptas. Explanation: The Gupta period is traditionally referred to as the ‘Golden Age’ or ‘Classical Age’ of ancient India due to its significant achievements in science, art, literature, and philosophy.

5. Who of the following was the author of the Sanskrit play ‘Mattavilasa Prahasana’? (Based on common PYQ themes) (a) Harshavardhana (b) Banabhatta (c) Mahendravarman I (d) Narasimhavarman I

   Answer: (c) Mahendravarman I. Explanation: The Pallava king Mahendravarman I was a great patron of arts and literature and is credited with authoring this famous Sanskrit farce, which satirizes the conduct of certain religious sects.

Mains

1. The Gupta period is often hailed as the ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India. Critically evaluate this statement. (UPSC GS-I, similar theme often asked)

   Answer: The characterization of the Gupta period (c. 4th-6th centuries CE) as the ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India stems from its remarkable accomplishments in various fields, but this epithet requires critical evaluation to understand its limitations.

   Arguments for the ‘Golden Age’ Thesis:

   • Political Stability: The Guptas provided political unity and stability over a large part of northern India for over a century, creating a conducive environment for cultural and scientific progress.
   • Literary Excellence: The period witnessed the zenith of classical Sanskrit literature. Kalidasa, the greatest poet and dramatist in Sanskrit, produced masterpieces like Abhijnanashakuntalam and Meghaduta. The epics and Puranas were also given their final form.
   • Scientific and Mathematical Advancements: There were path-breaking achievements in science. Aryabhata explained the true cause of eclipses, calculated the value of Pi, and pioneered the decimal system. Varahamihira made significant contributions to astronomy and astrology.
   • Art and Architecture: The period marks a classical phase in Indian art. The serene and spiritually profound Buddha images from Sarnath, the exquisite paintings in the Ajanta caves, and the emergence of the first free-standing structural temples (e.g., Dashavatara temple at Deogarh) are testaments to the artistic brilliance.
   • Religious Synthesis: The era saw the flourishing of Brahmanical Hinduism, particularly Vaishnavism and Shaivism, in a tolerant environment where Buddhism and Jainism also co-existed.

   Critical Evaluation and Counter-Arguments:

   • Limited Prosperity: The ‘golden’ aspect was largely confined to the elite, the royal court, and urban centers. The accounts of Fa-Hien reveal the miserable condition of the Chandalas, who were treated as untouchables and forced to live in segregation.
   • Decline in Women’s Status: The social status of women, particularly of the upper castes, deteriorated. They lost property and educational rights, and the first epigraphic evidence of Sati appears in 510 AD.
   • Rise of Feudalism: The practice of granting land to officials and Brahmins led to the rise of a feudal administrative structure. As argued by historian R.S. Sharma, this resulted in the decline of urban centers, a contraction of trade, and a greater exploitation of the peasantry.
   • Caste Rigidity: The caste system became more rigid, and the proliferation of jatis through the assimilation of tribes and foreigners further complicated the social hierarchy.

   Conclusion: While the Gupta period undoubtedly witnessed an extraordinary efflorescence in culture, science, and art, the term ‘Golden Age’ is an oversimplification. It overlooks the stark social inequalities, the decline in the status of women, and the exploitative feudal structure that characterized the era. A more nuanced perspective would be to call it a ‘Classical Age’, recognizing its high cultural achievements while acknowledging that its benefits were not shared equally by all sections of society.

2. Assess the contribution of the Pallavas to the development of Dravidian temple architecture. (UPSC GS-I, recurring theme)

   Answer: The Pallavas of Kanchipuram (c. 6th-9th centuries CE) were pioneers in the development of Dravidian temple architecture in South India. Their rule marks a transition from rock-cut architecture to free-standing structural temples, laying the foundational grammar for the grand temple complexes built by their successors, the Cholas. Their contribution can be traced through four distinct stages.

   1. Mahendra Style (c. 600-630 CE):

      • Initiated by Mahendravarman I, this style is characterized by rock-cut cave temples called mandapas.
      • These were simple halls excavated from rock faces, featuring massive, unadorned square or octagonal pillars.
      • Examples include the cave temples at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram, and Mamandur. This phase marked the first use of stone for temple construction in the Tamil country, moving away from perishable materials like brick and timber.

   2. Mamalla Style (c. 630-668 CE):

      • Flourishing under Narasimhavarman I ‘Mamalla’, this style represents a significant advancement.
      • It introduced two new forms: monolithic rathas (chariot-like temples carved from a single boulder) and more ornate mandapas.
      • The five rathas at Mahabalipuram, each with a different plan and elevation, are prototypes of various Dravidian temple forms.
      • The mandapas of this period are adorned with exquisite bas-relief sculptures, such as the famous ‘Arjuna’s Penance’ or ‘Descent of the Ganga’ panel, showcasing narrative dynamism and artistic mastery.

   3. Rajasimha Style (c. 690-800 CE):

      • Under Narasimhavarman II ‘Rajasimha’, the shift from rock-cut to structural temples was completed.
      • Temples were now built using stone blocks. This style is characterized by multi-storied vimanas (towers), pillared halls, and elaborate sculptural decoration on the outer walls.
      • The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) and the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram are the finest examples. These temples established the quintessential elements of the Dravidian style, including the pyramidal vimana and the enclosure wall (prakara).

   4. Nandivarman Style (c. 800-900 CE):

      • This was the final phase, characterized by smaller but well-proportioned temples.
      • While retaining the features of the Rajasimha style, the scale was reduced. The Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram is a notable example from this period.

   Conclusion: The Pallavas’ contribution to temple architecture was foundational and revolutionary. They guided the evolution from excavated caves to monolithic structures and finally to large, complex structural temples. They not only introduced stone as a medium but also established the basic plan and principal components of the Dravidian temple, creating a rich architectural legacy that was inherited and perfected by the Imperial Cholas, shaping the religious and artistic landscape of South India for centuries.

3. Compare and contrast the administrative systems of the Mauryan and Gupta empires. (UPSC GS-I)

4. How did the accounts of Chinese travelers like Fa-Hien and Xuanzang help in the reconstruction of ancient Indian history? Illustrate with examples from the Gupta and Harsha periods. (UPSC GS-I)

5. Analyze the socio-religious churning in South India during the Pallava period with special reference to the Bhakti movement. (UPSC GS-I)