1.2.1 - Ancient India Notes 10

Elaborate Notes

The Chalukyas (c. 6th - 12th Century CE)

The Chalukyas ruled a significant part of southern and central India, with their reign divided into three distinct but related dynasties.

• Chalukyas of Badami (or Vatapi): (c. 543 – 753 CE)
  • Origins and Early Rulers: The dynasty was founded by Pulakeshin I around 543 CE. He established his capital at Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka) and performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to assert his imperial sovereignty, a detail confirmed by his Badami cliff inscriptions. His sons, Kirtivarman I and later Mangalesha, expanded the kingdom by conquering the Konkan coast and subjugating the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Nalas of Bastar.
  • Pulakeshin II (c. 610 – 642 CE): The most celebrated ruler of this dynasty, whose exploits are meticulously detailed in the Aihole inscription (dated 634 CE), a prasasti composed by his court poet Ravikirti.
    • Conflict with Harshavardhana: Pulakeshin II’s most famous military achievement was halting the southern march of Emperor Harshavardhana of Kannauj on the banks of the river Narmada. The Aihole inscription vividly describes this victory, stating that Harsha’s harsha (joy) melted away in the face of Pulakeshin’s elephant corps. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), who visited India during this period, also corroborates this account, noting the inability of Harsha to subdue the Chalukyan king.
    • Conflict with the Pallavas: Pulakeshin II engaged in a protracted conflict with the Pallavas of Kanchi. He defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I (c. 600-630 CE) and advanced deep into Pallava territory. However, this success was reversed by Mahendravarman’s son, Narasimhavarman I (c. 630-668 CE), who decisively defeated and likely killed Pulakeshin II in the Battle of Vatapi around 642 CE. Narasimhavarman I then captured the Chalukyan capital and assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’ (Conqueror of Vatapi).
  • Later Rulers and Decline: After a period of Pallava occupation, the Chalukyan power was revived by Pulakeshin II’s son, Vikramaditya I, who avenged his father’s defeat by capturing the Pallava capital, Kanchi. The dynasty continued for about a century until its last ruler, Kirtivarman II, was overthrown in 753 CE by his feudatory, Dantidurga, who established the Rashtrakuta Empire.
• Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi: A branch founded by Pulakeshin II’s brother, Vishnuvardhana, in the eastern Deccan (present-day Andhra Pradesh). They ruled for over four centuries, acting as a buffer between the main southern powers and the kingdoms of the east.
• Western Chalukyas of Kalyani: Descendants of the Badami Chalukyas who revived the dynasty’s fortunes in the late 10th century after the decline of the Rashtrakutas. They ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan).
• Cultural and Administrative Significance:
  • Architecture: The Chalukyas are celebrated for their contribution to temple architecture. They perfected the Vesara style, a hybrid form that incorporates elements from both the northern Nagara and the southern Dravida styles. This experimentation is best seen in the temple complexes at Aihole (often called the “cradle of Indian temple architecture”), Badami, and Pattadakal. The Pattadakal complex, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, features temples in both Dravida (Virupaksha Temple) and Nagara (Papanatha Temple) styles, showcasing their architectural syncretism.
  • Religion and Literature: While they were patrons of Brahmanical Hinduism (particularly Shaivism and Vaishnavism), they displayed remarkable tolerance towards Jainism and Buddhism, as evidenced by the Jain cave temple at Aihole. The period saw the flourishing of both Sanskrit and the regional language, Kannada. Ravikirti’s Aihole inscription is a fine example of classical Sanskrit poetry.

The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj (c. 8th - 10th Century CE)

This was a prolonged conflict for the control of the city of Kannauj, which was a symbol of imperial power in North India since the time of Harshavardhana. Its strategic location on the Ganga trade route and control over the fertile Gangetic plains made it a coveted prize.

• The Contenders:
  1. The Gurjara-Pratiharas: Based in western India (Avanti-Jalaor region), they acted as a bulwark against Arab invasions and had the most direct geographical claim over Kannauj.
  2. The Palas: Based in eastern India (Bengal and Bihar), they controlled vast resources and sought to project their power westwards.
  3. The Rashtrakutas: Based in the Deccan, they were the successors to the Chalukyas of Badami and possessed formidable military strength. Their involvement was characterized by sudden, powerful raids into the north followed by a retreat to their home territory.
• Phases of the Conflict: The struggle lasted for nearly two centuries and saw the fortunes of the three powers ebb and flow.
  • The first phase was initiated by the Pratihara king Vatsaraja, who defeated the Pala king Dharmapala. However, Vatsaraja was subsequently defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
  • Dhruva then defeated Dharmapala as well, but had to return to the Deccan, leaving a power vacuum. Dharmapala capitalized on this, captured Kannauj, and installed his own nominee on the throne.
  • This success was challenged by the Pratihara king Nagabhata II, who reconquered Kannauj. He was, in turn, defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Govinda III.
• Outcome: The Pratiharas, under rulers like Mihir Bhoja, ultimately emerged victorious and established control over Kannauj, holding it for a considerable period. However, the constant warfare exhausted the resources of all three dynasties, weakening them significantly. The Rashtrakutas suffered from having to fight on two fronts (north and south), and the Palas were pushed back to the east. The Pratiharas, though victorious, were severely weakened by subsequent Rashtrakuta raids (e.g., by Indra III) and eventually succumbed to internal decay and the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni.

The Rashtrakuta Empire (c. 753 – 982 CE)

• Origins and Foundation: The Rashtrakutas (meaning ‘chiefs of the rashtra or province’) were initially feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami. Their mother tongue was Kannada. The empire was founded by Dantidurga, who overthrew his Chalukyan overlord Kirtivarman II in 753 CE. An inscription at Ellora details his performance of the Hiranyagarbha ritual, which symbolically established his Kshatriya status.
• Major Rulers and Achievements:
  • Krishna I: Succeeded Dantidurga and is credited with commissioning the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailash temple (Cave 16) at Ellora, a stupendous feat of architecture.
  • Dhruva and Govinda III: These rulers were instrumental in expanding Rashtrakuta power into North India, playing a key role in the Tripartite Struggle.
  • Amoghavarsha I (814 – 878 CE): Considered the greatest Rashtrakuta ruler. His long reign was marked more by cultural achievements and consolidation than by military conquests, earning him the sobriquet “Ashoka of the South.”
    • He established a new capital at Manyakheta (Malkhed, Karnataka).
    • He was a great patron of literature and is credited with authoring Kavirajamarga, the earliest extant work on poetics in the Kannada language.
    • He was a patron of Jainism and was converted by the Jain preceptor Jinasena, author of the Adipurana.
    • The Arab merchant Suleiman (c. 851 CE) visited his court and described him as one of the four great rulers of the world, alongside the Caliph of Baghdad, the Emperor of China, and the Emperor of Constantinople, highlighting his international repute.
• Cultural Significance:
  • Architecture: Besides the Kailash temple, the Rashtrakutas are associated with the later rock-cut caves at Ellora (Jain and Brahmanical) and the celebrated caves at Elephanta Island (Gharapuri) near Mumbai, which house the iconic Trimurti sculpture of Shiva.
  • Literature: They patronized Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada. Besides Amoghavarsha’s Kavirajamarga, this period saw the flourishing of the “three gems of Kannada literature,” including Pampa, the author of Vikramarjuna Vijaya (also known as Pampa Bharata).
  • Economy and Society: They maintained lucrative trade links with the Arab world, which contributed to their prosperity. Arab accounts note their powerful military and immense wealth.

The Pala Dynasty (c. 750 – 1150 CE)

• Origins and Foundation: After the fall of the Gauda kingdom under Shashanka (a contemporary of Harsha), Bengal descended into a state of anarchy known as matsyanyaya (“the law of the fish,” where the big fish eat the small ones). To end this chaos, the chiefs of the region elected Gopala as their king around 750 CE. This event is a rare example of a monarchy being established through a popular democratic process in ancient India.
• Major Rulers and Achievements:
  • Dharmapala (c. 770 – 810 CE): A vigorous king who greatly expanded the empire’s influence. He was a key participant in the Tripartite Struggle. His most significant contribution was the founding of the Vikramshila Mahavihara (in modern Bhagalpur, Bihar), which became a premier center for Buddhist learning, especially Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana).
  • Devapala (c. 810 – 850 CE): Considered the most powerful Pala ruler. He extended his control over Pragjyotisha (Assam), parts of Orissa, and modern Nepal. The Badal pillar inscription eulogizes his military victories. He was a devout Buddhist and maintained diplomatic relations with the Sailendra dynasty of Srivijaya (Sumatra, Indonesia). An inscription from Nalanda records that King Balaputradeva of Srivijaya requested Devapala to grant five villages for the upkeep of a monastery he had built at Nalanda.
  • Ramapala: The last strong Pala ruler, whose reign is the subject of the biographical work Ramacharita by his court poet Sandhyakar Nandi. This work is a unique example of shlesha (pun), narrating the story of the epic hero Rama and King Ramapala simultaneously.
• Cultural Significance:
  • Religion: The Palas were the last great patrons of Buddhism in India. They patronized the great Mahaviharas of Nalanda and Vikramshila, which attracted scholars from all over the Buddhist world.
  • Art: They are credited with pioneering the Pala School of Miniature Painting, primarily through illustrations on palm-leaf manuscripts. They also excelled in bronze sculpture. This distinctive artistic style had a profound influence on the art of Nepal, Tibet, and other parts of Southeast Asia.

The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty (c. 8th - 11th Century CE)

• Origins: The Pratiharas, who called themselves descendants of the epic hero Lakshmana (who acted as a pratihara or doorkeeper for Rama), established a powerful kingdom in western India.
• Major Rulers and Achievements:
  • Nagabhata I (c. 730 – 760 CE): The true founder of the dynasty’s power. The Gwalior inscription credits him with repelling a major Arab invasion from Sindh under Junaid, effectively halting their eastward expansion.
  • Vatsaraja and Nagabhata II: They were early participants in the Tripartite Struggle and expanded the kingdom’s boundaries to include Kannauj.
  • Mihir Bhoja (c. 836 – 885 CE): The greatest ruler of the dynasty. After initial setbacks against the Palas and Rashtrakutas, he reconquered Kannauj and made it his capital. His empire extended from the foothills of the Himalayas to the Narmada and from Bengal to Sindh.
    • He was an ardent devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title Adivaraha, which is inscribed on his coins.
    • The Arab traveler Al-Masudi (who visited India in c. 915-16 CE) referred to the Pratihara king as ‘King Baura’ (a corruption of Varaha or Bhoja) and praised the strength of his cavalry and the peace in his kingdom.
• Decline: The dynasty was weakened by repeated conflicts with the Rashtrakutas (King Indra III sacked Kannauj in the early 10th century) and the rise of its own feudatories like the Chandellas and the Chahamanas. The final blow came when Mahmud of Ghazni sacked Kannauj in 1018 CE, leading to the collapse of the empire.

Prelims Pointers

• Chalukyan Branches: Badami (Vatapi), Vengi (Eastern), and Kalyani (Western).
• Founder of Badami Chalukyas: Pulakeshin I.
• Capital of Badami Chalukyas: Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka).
• Aihole Inscription: Composed by Ravikirti, court poet of Pulakeshin II. It is a key source for his reign.
• Pulakeshin II’s Victory: Defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada river.
• Vatapikonda: Title assumed by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I after defeating Pulakeshin II and capturing Vatapi.
• Successors of Badami Chalukyas: Rashtrakutas, founded by Dantidurga.
• Chalukyan Architecture Style: Vesara (a hybrid of Nagara and Dravida styles).
• UNESCO World Heritage Site: Temples at Pattadakal.
• Tripartite Struggle Participants: Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas.
• Centre of Tripartite Struggle: The city of Kannauj.
• Founder of Rashtrakuta Dynasty: Dantidurga.
• Kailash Temple at Ellora (Cave 16): Built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. It is a monolithic structure.
• Rashtrakuta Capital: Manyakheta (Malkhed).
• Ashoka of the South: Title given to Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I.
• Kavirajamarga: Earliest Kannada work on poetics, written by Amoghavarsha I.
• Pampa: One of the three gems of Kannada literature; wrote Vikramarjuna Vijaya.
• Foreign Traveler on Rashtrakutas: Arab merchant Suleiman called Amoghavarsha one of the 4 greatest kings.
• Elephanta Caves (Gharapuri): Patronised by the Rashtrakutas.
• Founder of Pala Dynasty: Gopala, elected by the people to end anarchy (matsyanyaya).
• Vikramshila University: Founded by Pala king Dharmapala.
• Pala Diplomatic Relations: Devapala received an embassy from Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Srivijaya (Sumatra).
• Pala Art: Pioneered miniature painting in India and excelled in bronze sculpture.
• Last Patrons of Buddhism: The Pala dynasty is considered the last major royal patron of Buddhism in India.
• Ramacharita: A biography of Ramapala written by Sandhyakar Nandi.
• Founder of Pratihara Dynasty: Nagabhata I.
• Nagabhata I’s Achievement: Resisted Arab invasions from Sindh.
• Greatest Pratihara Ruler: Mihir Bhoja.
• Mihir Bhoja’s Title: Adivaraha (devotee of Vishnu).
• Foreign Traveler on Pratiharas: Al-Masudi referred to the Pratihara king as ‘King Baura’.

Mains Insights

GS Paper I (History, Art & Culture)

1. Political Fragmentation and Imperial Ambition: The period from c. 750-1000 CE was marked by a seeming paradox: while India was politically fragmented, powerful regional kingdoms harbored pan-Indian imperial ambitions. The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj is the prime example.

   • Cause: Kannauj was not just a city; it was the erstwhile capital of Harsha and symbolized imperial legitimacy (sakalottarapathanatha - lord of all of north India). Control over it meant control of the strategic and resource-rich Ganga valley.
   • Effect: The centuries-long conflict, while showcasing the military might of the three powers, ultimately proved to be a pyrrhic victory for the Pratiharas. It exhausted all three empires, creating a power vacuum in North India that facilitated the rise of smaller regional states (Chandellas, Paramaras, Chahamanas) and, critically, made the region vulnerable to later invasions from the northwest, notably by Mahmud of Ghazni.

2. Syncretism and Innovation in Art and Architecture: This era was not just about conflict but also immense cultural creativity, often characterized by synthesis.

   • Chalukyan Architecture: The Vesara style is a testament to the dynamic cultural exchange between North and South India. The architects at Pattadakal consciously built temples in both Dravida and Nagara styles side-by-side, demonstrating a sophisticated understanding and deliberate fusion of architectural traditions. This reflects a broader trend of cultural synthesis in the Deccan.
   • Pala School of Art: The art of the Palas represents the final efflorescence of classical Buddhist art in India. Its influence was not confined to India. As Buddhism waned in its homeland, Pala monks and artists traveled to Nepal and Tibet, carrying with them manuscripts and sculptures. This led to the Pala style becoming the foundation for Tibetan Buddhist art (Thangka painting), demonstrating India’s role as a cultural exporter.

3. State Formation and Legitimacy: The origins of the dynasties reveal diverse processes of state formation.

   • Feudatory to Imperial: The Rashtrakutas and later the Western Chalukyas rose to power as feudatories overthrowing their masters. This demonstrates a fluid political structure where military power could rapidly alter the hierarchy.
   • Election and Social Contract: The establishment of the Pala dynasty through the election of Gopala to end matsyanyaya is a remarkable political event. It can be interpreted as an early Indian parallel to the social contract theory, where political legitimacy is derived from the consent of the governed (in this case, the regional chiefs) to establish order.
   • Mythical Lineage: The Pratiharas claiming descent from Lakshmana was a common method of legitimizing rule by connecting the dynasty to an epic, divine lineage, thereby elevating their social and political status.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: (2022)

   1. Aurang - In-charge of treasury of the State
   2. Banian - Indian agent of the East India Company
   3. Mirasidar - Designated revenue payer to the State Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (Note: This question is from a different period but demonstrates the style of matching pairs. A similar question on ancient history could be asked.)

   Example Question based on Topic: With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs:

   1. Kavirajamarga : Amoghavarsha I
   2. Aihole Inscription : Ravikirti
   3. Ramacharita : Sandhyakar Nandi Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3. All three pairs are correctly matched. Kavirajamarga is a Kannada work by Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I. The Aihole inscription was composed by Ravikirti, the court poet of Chalukyan king Pulakeshin II. The Ramacharita was written by Sandhyakar Nandi about the Pala king Ramapala.

2. The rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora was built by the patronage of which dynasty? (Modelled on previous patterns) (a) Chalukyas (b) Pallavas (c) Rashtrakutas (d) Palas Answer: (c) Rashtrakutas. The Kailasa temple (Cave 16) at Ellora was commissioned by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I in the 8th century CE.

3. The primary reason for the “Tripartite Struggle” between the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas was the control over which city? (Modelled on previous patterns) (a) Pataliputra (b) Vatapi (c) Kanchi (d) Kannauj Answer: (d) Kannauj. Kannauj, the former capital of Harshavardhana, was a symbol of imperial power and controlled the fertile Gangetic plains, making it the focal point of the struggle.

4. The foundation of Vikramshila University, a great centre for Vajrayana Buddhism, is attributed to which of the following rulers? (Modelled on previous patterns) (a) Gopala (b) Devapala (c) Dharmapala (d) Ramapala Answer: (c) Dharmapala. The Pala king Dharmapala founded the Vikramshila Mahavihara in the late 8th or early 9th century.

5. Consider the following statements regarding the Chalukyan king Pulakeshin II: (Modelled on previous patterns)

   1. He defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I.
   2. His exploits are detailed in an inscription written by the Chinese traveler Xuanzang.
   3. He successfully halted the southward march of Emperor Harshavardhana. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 3 only Answer: (a) 1 and 3 only. Statement 2 is incorrect. While Xuanzang mentions the conflict between Harsha and Pulakeshin II, the detailed account of his exploits comes from the Aihole inscription composed by his court poet, Ravikriti. Statements 1 and 3 are historically accurate.

Mains

1. The Pala period is the most significant phase in the history of Buddhism in India. Enumerate. (2018) Answer: The Pala period (c. 8th-12th century CE) can be considered the most significant final phase for Buddhism in India before its decline. The Pala rulers were the last great royal patrons of the faith, and their support allowed it to flourish at a time when it was waning in other parts of the subcontinent.

   • Patronage of Mahaviharas: The Palas were great patrons of Buddhist monastic and educational centers. Dharmapala founded the Vikramshila University, which became a premier institution for Vajrayana Buddhism, attracting scholars from across the world, particularly Tibet. They also continued to patronize the existing Nalanda Mahavihara, as evidenced by Devapala’s grant of villages for a monastery built by the Srivijayan king. Other monasteries like Somapura and Odantapuri also flourished under them.
   • Development of Vajrayana Buddhism: The Pala period was crucial for the development and dissemination of Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism. The scholars and acharyas from Pala-patronized universities, such as Atisha Dipankara, played a pivotal role in transmitting these teachings to Tibet, shaping Tibetan Buddhism profoundly.
   • Pala School of Art: The period saw the emergence of a distinctive school of art in the form of miniature paintings on palm-leaf manuscripts and exquisite bronze sculptures. These artworks, primarily depicting Buddhist deities, were not only artistic masterpieces but also served as important vehicles for the transmission of Buddhist iconography and philosophy. This artistic style heavily influenced the art of Nepal, Tibet, Burma, and Java.
   • International Hub for Buddhism: The diplomatic and cultural exchanges, such as the one between Devapala and King Balaputradeva of Srivijaya, underscore the Pala kingdom’s role as an international hub for the Buddhist world, connecting India with Southeast Asia. In conclusion, the Pala dynasty provided the crucial institutional, intellectual, and artistic support that led to a final, brilliant efflorescence of Buddhism in India, and ensured its transmission and survival in other parts of Asia, especially Tibet.

2. Evaluate the significance of the Chalukyan contributions to Indian architecture, particularly the development of the Vesara style. (Model Question) Answer: The Chalukyas of Badami (c. 6th-8th century CE) were prolific builders whose reign marks a formative and highly innovative period in the history of Indian temple architecture. Their primary significance lies in their role as innovators who consciously experimented with and synthesised northern and southern architectural idioms, leading to the development of the distinct Vesara style.

   • Cradle of Temple Architecture: The early Chalukyan capital, Aihole, is often called the “cradle of Indian temple architecture” as it features over 100 temples in various styles, showcasing an evolutionary phase from rock-cut caves to structural temples. Early experiments like the Lad Khan temple, with its flat roof and pillared hall, show a departure from Gupta-era templates.
   • Experimentation at Pattadakal: The UNESCO World Heritage site of Pattadakal served as a royal commemorative site and an architectural workshop. Here, temples in the northern Rekha-Nagara style (e.g., Papanatha temple) and the southern Dravida-Vimana style (e.g., Virupaksha temple) were built in close proximity. This demonstrates a deliberate and sophisticated juxtaposition of the two dominant architectural traditions of India.
   • Birth of the Vesara Style: The Vesara style, often called the Chalukyan or Deccan style, emerged from this experimentation. It is a hybrid style that combines the Dravidian vimana structure for the main shrine with the Nagara-style curvilinear shikhara. The plan of the shrine is often stellate or square with projections, and the ornamentation and sculptural details borrow from both traditions. This synthesis created a unique architectural identity for the Deccan region.
   • Legacy: The architectural innovations of the Badami Chalukyas were carried forward and further refined by their successors, the Rashtrakutas and the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, and later by the Hoysalas. The Vesara style thus became the principal architectural language of the Deccan for centuries. In essence, the Chalukyan contribution was not merely the construction of temples, but the creation of a dynamic architectural laboratory that produced a new, syncretic style, enriching the diversity and vocabulary of Indian temple architecture.

3. The Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj was a testament to imperial ambition but ultimately proved detrimental to all participants. Analyse. (Model Question)

4. Amoghavarsha I is rightly called the “Ashoka of the South”. Do you agree? Justify your answer with reference to his policies and cultural patronage. (Model Question)

5. Discuss the role of the Gurjara-Pratiharas as a bulwark against the Arab invasions in the 8th and 9th centuries and their impact on the political map of North India. (Model Question)