GS Notes

1.1 - Art and Culture Notes 02

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MAURYAN PERIOD ART

  • The Shramana Tradition and its Influence

    • The term Shramana is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘śram’, meaning ‘to exert effort, labor, or to perform austerity’. It refers to a tradition of asceticism and spiritual striving that emerged in ancient India.
    • Historical Context: The tradition gained prominence towards the end of the Later Vedic Period (c. 600 BCE). It arose as a socio-religious reform movement against the rigidities and orthodoxy of Brahmanical traditions. The Shramanas, who were wandering ascetics, challenged the authority of the Vedas, the dominance of the priestly (Brahmin) class, the complex and expensive ritualism, and the hereditary Varna system.
    • Core Tenets: Shramanic thought emphasized individual effort (self-reliance) for achieving spiritual liberation (moksha or nirvana), often through ascetic practices, meditation, and ethical conduct, rather than through rituals performed by priests.
    • Major Movements: By the 6th Century BCE, this tradition had given rise to several heterodox schools of thought, most notably Buddhism (founded by Siddhartha Gautama), Jainism (propagated by Mahavira), and the Ajivika school (founded by Makkhali Gosala).
    • Mauryan Patronage: The Mauryan emperors, particularly Chandragupta (who, according to Jain tradition, patronized Jainism), Bindusara (favored the Ajivikas), and Ashoka (embraced Buddhism), extended significant patronage to these Shramana traditions. This patronage was a departure from exclusive support to Brahmanism and was reflected profoundly in the art and architecture they commissioned. According to historian Romila Thapar (Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, 1961), this patronage was also a political strategy to consolidate a vast, diverse empire by appealing to non-Brahmanical sections of the populace.

  • Mauryan Caves

    • Origin and Significance: The rock-cut caves of the Mauryan period are considered the earliest examples of man-made, excavated cave architecture in the Indian subcontinent. They marked the beginning of a long and prolific tradition of rock-cut architecture that would flourish for over a thousand years.
    • Architectural Features:
      • They were excavated from monolithic granite rock, a testament to the advanced engineering skills of the time.
      • The interiors were finished with a highly distinctive mirror-like polish, a characteristic feature of Mauryan art, which has survived remarkably for over two millennia. This polish is often referred to as ‘Mauryan Polish’.
      • The entrance facade was typically rectangular, often leading to a vaulted, semi-circular (apsidal) chamber. The Lomas Rishi Cave facade is a unique example that imitates the form of a wooden hut with a arched gateway, showing a clear transition from wooden to stone architecture.
    • Patronage and Purpose: Inscriptions found in these caves explicitly state that they were dedicated by Emperor Ashoka (reign c. 268–232 BCE) and his grandson, Dasaratha Maurya, for the use of Ajivika monks as residences, especially during the rainy season.
    • Examples:
      • Barabar Hills, Jehanabad, Bihar: This cluster contains four caves, including the Lomas Rishi Cave (notable for its ornate arched facade depicting elephants worshipping stupas) and the Sudama Cave. The Sudama Cave has an inscription by Ashoka from his 12th regnal year.
      • Nagarjuni Hills, Jehanabad, Bihar: Located nearby, this group has three caves commissioned by Dasaratha, the grandson of Ashoka, also for the Ajivikas.
      • Dhauli Cave, Odisha: At Dhauli, the site of a major Ashokan edict, a rock-cut relief of the forepart of an elephant is carved emerging from the rock above the inscriptions. The elephant is a powerful symbol in Buddhism, representing the Buddha’s conception (as Queen Maya dreamt of a white elephant). This sculpture, dated to Ashoka’s reign (c. 257 BCE), is one of the earliest monumental sculptures in India.

  • Mauryan Pillars

    • Characteristics: Ashokan pillars are among the most celebrated artifacts of the Mauryan era.
      • Monolithic: Each pillar was carved from a single block of stone, primarily chunar sandstone.
      • Structure: They consist of four main parts: the Shaft (a tapering, monolithic column), the Capital (often a bell-shaped or inverted lotus form, which art historian John Irwin argued is not a Persian bell but a symbol representing the cosmic pillar), the Abacus (a platform above the capital, either square or circular, often decorated with reliefs), and a Crowning Animal Sculpture (e.g., lion, bull, elephant).
      • Polish: The pillars feature the characteristic Mauryan mirror-like polish.
      • Erection: They were freestanding monuments erected in open spaces along trade routes or at significant locations related to Buddhism, unlike Achaemenian pillars which were structural parts of large buildings.
    • Comparison with Achaemenian Pillars: The debate on Persian influence, proposed by scholars like Sir John Marshall and Mortimer Wheeler, is central here. However, key differences highlight indigenous innovation.
Mauryan PillarAchaemenian (Persian) Pillar
Monolithic, carved from a single stone.Segmental, constructed in pieces (drums).
Smooth, tapering shaft without a base.Fluted shaft with a distinct base.
Average height around 40-50 feet.Generally shorter.
Freestanding, erected in open spaces.Part of larger architectural structures like palaces (e.g., at Persepolis).
Features highly naturalistic, powerful animal capitals.Capitals are often composite and more stylized (e.g., bull-man figures).

  • Purpose: The purpose evolved during Ashoka’s reign.

    • Pre-Kalinga War: Possibly to commemorate victories or serve as symbols of imperial power, propagating royal commands.
    • Post-Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE): The primary purpose shifted to the propagation of Dhamma, Ashoka’s moral and ethical code of conduct. The pillars, inscribed with his edicts, acted as public bulletins. The concept of Dhamma, as explained by scholars like A.L. Basham (The Wonder That Was India, 1954), was not a specific religion but a secular ethical policy emphasizing non-violence, tolerance, and social responsibility. They were also erected to mark significant sites in the Buddha’s life.

  • Examples:

    • Lauriya Nandangarh, Bihar: A single lion capital, well-preserved with its edicts intact.
    • Rampurva, Bihar: Two pillars were found here; one with a bull capital (now in Rashtrapati Bhavan) and another with a lion capital.
    • Sankisa, Uttar Pradesh: Features an elephant capital, though it is now damaged. The elephant symbolizes Buddha’s conception.
    • Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh: The most famous capital, featuring four majestic lions seated back-to-back on a circular abacus decorated with a horse, a bull, an elephant, and a lion, separated by Dharma wheels (Dharmachakra). It was erected to commemorate Buddha’s first sermon, the ‘Dharmachakra Pravartana’ (Turning of the Wheel of Law). * National Emblem: The capital (without the inverted lotus base) was adopted as the National Emblem of India in 1950. * The motto “Satyameva Jayate” (Truth Alone Triumphs), inscribed below the emblem, is taken from the Mundaka Upanishad.

  • Stupa Architecture

    • Origin: The term ‘stupa’ is Sanskrit for ‘heap’ or ‘mound’. Its origins pre-date Buddhism and can be traced to Vedic-era burial mounds (tumuli) used to cover the remains of holy men.
    • Buddhist Adoption: After the Mahaparinirvana (death) of the Buddha, his cremated remains (relics) were divided and enshrined in stupas by his followers.
    • Ashoka’s Role: The Buddhist text Ashokavadana credits Ashoka with the redistribution of Buddha’s relics from the original eight stupas and the construction of 84,000 stupas across his empire. This number is likely symbolic, but archaeological evidence confirms his role in building and enlarging several important stupas, like the one at Sanchi. He is credited with building the Nine Early Stupas on the corporeal relics of the Buddha at sites like Rajgir, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Alakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar, and Pippalvina.
    • Structure and Symbolism:
      • Vedika: A railing or enclosure wall, often with intricate carvings, separating the sacred space from the secular.
      • Toranas: Four ceremonial gateways at the cardinal directions. They symbolize key events in Buddha’s life: East (Birth), South (Enlightenment), West (First Sermon), North (Nirvana). They were often elaborately carved with Jataka Tales (stories of Buddha’s previous lives).
      • Pradakshina Path: A circumambulatory pathway for devotees to walk around the stupa in a clockwise direction.
      • Anda: The hemispherical dome, representing the infinite dome of heaven and containing the relics.
      • Harmika: A square railing on top of the Anda, considered the abode of the gods and the most sacred part of the stupa.
      • Yashti (or Chhatravali): A central mast or pole rising from the Harmika, symbolizing the axis mundi (axis of the universe).
      • Chhatra: A triple-tiered umbrella structure atop the Yashti, representing the Triratnas (Three Jewels) of Buddhism:
        1. Buddha (The Enlightened One)
        2. Dhamma (His Doctrine)
        3. Sangha (The Monastic Community)
    • Stupa as a Microcosm: The stupa is a complex cosmic symbol. It represents the Buddha himself in his enlightened state: the base (Medhi) is his crossed legs in meditation, the Anda is his torso, and the Harmika/Yashti represents his head.

SCULPTURE OF THE MAURYAN AGE

  • Yaksha and Yakshini Figures: Alongside the formal court art of pillars, a more popular, indigenous tradition of monumental stone sculpture thrived, depicting folk gods and goddesses.
    • Nature: Yakshas (male) and Yakshinis (female) were nature spirits or demi-gods associated with fertility, wealth, and the protection of nature. Their worship pre-dates organized Buddhism and Jainism but was incorporated into these traditions.
    • Religious Syncretism:
      • Hinduism: Yakshas are mentioned in texts like the Mahabharata as powerful nature spirits. Kubera, the god of wealth, is considered the king of Yakshas.
      • Jainism: Each of the 24 Tirthankaras has an associated Yaksha and Yakshini as attendant deities.
      • Buddhism: They were absorbed as protectors of the faith and symbols of auspiciousness, often placed at the entrances of sacred sites.
    • Artistic Features: These sculptures are monumental in scale, carved in the round, and possess a powerful, earthy quality. They are made of sandstone and feature the characteristic Mauryan polish.
    • Examples:
      • Didarganj Yakshini (Chauri-bearer): Found near Patna, this is a life-sized statue of a female attendant holding a fly-whisk (chauri). It is renowned for its exquisite polish and sensuous modeling.
      • Parkham Yaksha: A colossal statue found near Mathura, representing the robust style of this folk tradition.
      • Salabhanjika Yakshini: A recurring motif, notably at Sanchi Stupa’s toranas (from the slightly later period), depicting a Yakshini holding a branch of a Sal tree. It is a potent symbol of fertility, where the touch of the Yakshini is believed to make the tree blossom.

MAURYAN POTTERY

  • Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): This is the diagnostic pottery of the Mauryan period (c. 700-200 BCE, peaking during the Mauryan era).
    • Characteristics: It represents a zenith in Indian pottery making. It is characterized by its luxurious, jet-black lustrous surface that often resembles metal. Sometimes it is also found in other shades like steel blue, silver, or gold.
    • Technique: It was made from extremely fine, well-levigated clay. The high-gloss finish was achieved by applying a slip of fine clay particles and firing it at a very high temperature in a reducing kiln environment. As noted by archaeological reports from sites like Ahichchhatra, it was likely a deluxe ware used by the elite.

Prelims Pointers

  • Shramana Tradition: An ascetic movement that arose against Vedic orthodoxy; gave rise to Buddhism, Jainism, and Ajivika school.
  • Mauryan Caves: Earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India.
  • Patrons of Caves: Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha dedicated them to Ajivika monks.
  • Cave Locations: Barabar Hills (Lomas Rishi, Sudama caves) and Nagarjuni Hills in Bihar.
  • Dhauli Sculpture: A rock-cut relief of the forepart of an elephant, located in Odisha.
  • Mauryan Pillars: Monolithic (carved from a single stone), highly polished, and freestanding.
  • Pillar Material: Primarily Chunar Sandstone.
  • Parts of a Pillar: Shaft, Bell Capital (inverted lotus), Abacus, and Crowning Animal.
  • Mauryan vs. Achaemenian Pillars: Mauryan pillars are monolithic and freestanding; Achaemenian pillars are segmental and part of buildings.
  • Ashoka’s Dhamma: A moral-ethical code of conduct, not a religion. Propagated through pillar and rock edicts.
  • Sarnath Lion Capital: Commemorates Buddha’s first sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana). It is the National Emblem of India.
  • Satyameva Jayate: The national motto, taken from the Mundaka Upanishad.
  • Stupa: A hemispherical burial mound containing relics of the Buddha or Buddhist saints.
  • Ashoka and Stupas: Credited with building 84,000 stupas.
  • Stupa Components:
    1. Anda: The hemispherical dome.
    2. Harmika: Square railing on top of the Anda.
    3. Yashti: Central mast.
    4. Chhatra: Umbrellas symbolizing the Triratnas.
    5. Torana: Gateway.
    6. Vedika: Enclosing rail.
  • Triratnas (Three Jewels) of Buddhism: Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha.
  • Jataka Tales: Stories of the Buddha’s previous lives, often carved on stupa railings and gateways.
  • Yaksha/Yakshini: Folk deities of nature and fertility; examples include Didarganj Yakshini and Parkham Yaksha.
  • Mauryan Pottery: Known as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), a luxury ware with a glossy black finish.
  • Post-Mauryan Caves:
    • Chaitya: A prayer hall with a stupa inside (e.g., Karla Caves).
    • Vihara: A monastery or dwelling place for monks.

Mains Insights

  • GS Paper I: Mauryan Art as an Instrument of State Policy

    • Mauryan art, especially under Ashoka, was not merely aesthetic but a powerful tool for political consolidation and ideological propagation.
    • Cause-Effect Relationship: The Kalinga War was a pivotal event that transformed Ashoka’s state policy from military conquest (digvijaya) to cultural conquest (dhammavijaya). This shift is directly reflected in the purpose of the pillars—from symbols of imperial might to carriers of the message of Dhamma, promoting peace, tolerance, and social welfare.
    • Imperial Unification: By using a standardized script (Brahmi) and language (Prakrit) on edicts across a vast territory, and by erecting uniform pillars, the Mauryan state created a visible symbol of a unified imperial presence, binding diverse regions together.
    • Patronage and Power: Patronizing non-Brahmanical Shramana traditions was a strategic move to create a broader base of support and counter the influence of orthodox Brahmanas, thereby strengthening the emperor’s absolute authority.

  • GS Paper I: Historiographical Debate: Foreign vs. Indigenous Origins of Mauryan Art

    • Foreign Influence Argument (Persepolitan Influence):
      • Proponents like Sir John Marshall, Percy Brown, and V.A. Smith pointed to similarities between Mauryan and Achaemenian (Persian) art, such as the polished surfaces, the bell-shaped capitals of pillars, and the idea of inscribing royal proclamations on stone.
      • They argued that the sudden emergence of monumental stone art suggests the import of ideas and craftsmen from the Persian empire, which had recently been conquered by Alexander the Great.
    • Indigenous Origin Argument:
      • Scholars like Ananda Coomaraswamy and John Irwin countered this by highlighting the fundamental differences (monolithic vs. segmental pillars, naturalistic vs. stylized animals, freestanding nature of pillars).
      • They argued that Mauryan art was a culmination of a pre-existing Indian tradition of wood and clay craftsmanship, which, with the stability and resources of the Mauryan state, transitioned to the more durable medium of stone. The Lomas Rishi facade, imitating a wooden structure, is cited as strong evidence for this transition.
    • Synthesis View: The modern scholarly consensus leans towards a synthesis. While the idea of using stone for monumental art and edicts may have been inspired by Achaemenian examples, the form, technique, symbolism, and execution were distinctly Indian and rooted in indigenous traditions.

  • GS Paper IV: Ashoka’s Dhamma as an Ethical Framework for Governance

    • Ashoka’s Dhamma provides a timeless model of ethical governance. It was a secular ethical code based on universal values.
    • Core Principles: Non-violence (ahimsa), respect for elders and all religious sects (tolerance), kindness to servants and slaves (social justice), and promotion of public welfare (planting trees, digging wells).
    • Relevance Today: These principles are fundamental to modern constitutional values like secularism, social justice, environmentalism, and a humane administrative approach. The use of public art (pillars) to communicate state policy directly to the people is an early example of public outreach and administrative transparency.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. Which one of the following statements about the Sarnath Lion Capital is NOT correct? (UPSC CSE 2023 - modified for topic) (a) It was erected by Emperor Ashoka to mark the site of Buddha’s first sermon. (b) The capital was originally crowned by a large wheel, the Dharmachakra. (c) The motto ‘Satyameva Jayate’ is inscribed on the original abacus of the pillar. (d) The animals on the abacus include a bull, a horse, a lion, and an elephant. Answer: (c) The motto ‘Satyameva Jayate’ is taken from the Mundaka Upanishad and was added to the State Emblem when it was adopted in 1950; it was not part of the original Mauryan pillar.

  2. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE 2020 - modified)

    1. Chaitya - A prayer hall in Buddhism
    2. Vihara - A dwelling place for monks
    3. Stupa - A rock-cut shrine dedicated to a deity Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) Chaitya is a Buddhist prayer hall, and Vihara is a monastery or dwelling place. A Stupa is a burial mound containing relics and is not typically a rock-cut shrine (though votive stupas can be rock-cut inside Chaityas).

  3. The rock-cut elephant at Dhauli was created during the reign of which of the following rulers? (UPSC CSE 2022 - modified) (a) Chandragupta Maurya (b) Ashoka (c) Kanishka (d) Harshavardhana Answer: (b) The Dhauli elephant sculpture is located near the Ashokan rock edicts and is dated to his reign (c. 257 BCE). It is one of the earliest monumental sculptures from the Mauryan period.

  4. Consider the following statements regarding Ashokan Pillars:

    1. They are monolithic in structure.
    2. They were always erected within palace complexes.
    3. They feature a characteristic highly polished surface. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) Ashokan pillars are monolithic and have a characteristic polish. However, they were freestanding monuments erected in open public spaces, not within palace complexes like their Achaemenian counterparts.

  5. The famous image of the Didarganj Yakshini is a prime example of the art of which period? (UPSC CSE 2019 - modified) (a) Gupta Period (b) Kushan Period (c) Mauryan Period (d) Shunga Period Answer: (c) The Didarganj Yakshini, with its monumental size and characteristic mirror-like polish, is a hallmark of Mauryan sculpture.

Mains

  1. Highlight the central features of Mauryan sculpture and architecture. (UPSC CSE 2023 - modified for specificity) Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Briefly mention the Mauryan period as a landmark in Indian art, marking a transition to monumental stone art under state patronage. Mention the two streams: court art and popular art.
    • Architecture:
      • Pillars: Discuss their key features—monolithic, polished sandstone, structure (shaft, capital, abacus, crowning animal), and purpose (propagation of Dhamma). Provide examples like Sarnath and Lauriya Nandangarh.
      • Stupas: Explain their religious significance, origins, and Ashoka’s role in their construction. Detail the structural components (Anda, Harmika, Torana, etc.) and their symbolism. Use Sanchi Stupa as an example.
      • Cave Architecture: Describe the rock-cut caves (e.g., Barabar Hills) as the earliest of their kind, their polished interiors, and dedication to Ajivika monks.
    • Sculpture:
      • Pillar Capitals: Discuss the masterful, naturalistic animal sculptures like the Sarnath lions and Rampurva bull as examples of court art.
      • Popular Art (Yaksha/Yakshini): Describe the monumental folk sculptures like the Didarganj Yakshini, highlighting their powerful form, religious syncretism, and Mauryan polish.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by summarizing how Mauryan art combined imperial ideology, religious devotion, and indigenous craftsmanship to create a powerful and lasting artistic legacy.

  2. Mauryan art was a unique blend of indigenous traditions and foreign influences. Critically analyze. (UPSC CSE 2022 - modified) Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: State the central debate regarding the origins of Mauryan art, acknowledging the sudden appearance of monumental stone works.
    • Arguments for Foreign (Achaemenian) Influence:
      • Mention the polished surface (‘Mauryan Polish’) similar to that found at Persepolis.
      • Point to the bell-shaped capital of pillars, which some scholars link to the Persian bell form.
      • The practice of issuing edicts on rock surfaces.
    • Arguments for Indigenous Origins:
      • Highlight the significant differences: Mauryan pillars are monolithic and freestanding, unlike the segmental and structural Achaemenian pillars.
      • The animal capitals are highly naturalistic and Indian in spirit (lion, bull, elephant) compared to the stylized mythical creatures of Persia.
      • Cite the Lomas Rishi cave facade as evidence of a direct transition from a pre-existing wooden architectural tradition. The concept of Yaksha worship and stupas was entirely indigenous.
    • Critical Analysis and Synthesis:
      • Conclude that while the Mauryans may have been inspired by the idea of using stone for imperial expression, the form, content, symbolism, and execution were deeply rooted in Indian traditions. It was less an imitation and more an indigenous adaptation and innovation on a monumental scale.

  3. The rock-cut architecture of the Mauryan period represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art and history. Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2020) Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Introduce rock-cut architecture as a significant contribution of the Mauryan period, initiated a long-lasting tradition.
    • Source of Art History:
      • Technological Advancement: The skill required to hew monolithic granite and achieve the unique Mauryan polish shows high craftsmanship.
      • Architectural Transition: The Lomas Rishi facade demonstrates the evolution from wooden prototypes to stone, a crucial phase in architectural history.
      • Earliest Example: They are the first surviving examples of monumental man-made caves, forming a baseline for studying later developments at Ajanta, Ellora, etc.
    • Source of Political and Social History:
      • Royal Patronage: Inscriptions directly link the caves to Ashoka and Dasaratha, providing concrete evidence of their reigns and policies.
      • Religious Pluralism: The dedication of caves to the Ajivika sect, a non-Buddhist and non-Brahmanical faith, highlights the Mauryan state’s policy of religious tolerance.
      • Monastic Life: The caves provide insight into the ascetic lifestyle of Shramana sects and the organization of the Sangha.
    • Conclusion: Summarize how these rock-cut caves are not just artistic marvels but invaluable historical documents providing tangible evidence of Mauryan technology, religious policy, and social conditions.

  4. Early Buddhist stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. (UPSC CSE 2016) Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Explain that stupas were not just religious structures but also canvases for art that communicated Buddhist doctrines to the laity.
    • Folk Motifs and Narratives:
      • Jataka Tales: Describe how the railings (vedika) and gateways (toranas) of stupas like Sanchi and Bharhut are carved with Jataka tales, which were popular folk stories adapted to illustrate Buddhist values like compassion, self-sacrifice, and karma.
      • Yaksha/Yakshini and Nature Motifs: Mention the inclusion of folk deities and nature symbols (lotus, trees, animals). These were familiar to the common people and were integrated to make the sacred space more accessible and auspicious. The Salabhanjika at Sanchi is a prime example.
    • Exposition of Buddhist Ideals:
      • Aniconic Representation: Explain that in early stupa-art, Buddha was not depicted in human form. His presence was indicated through symbols: an empty throne (his enlightenment), a wheel (first sermon), footprints, or a stupa (his nirvana). This emphasized the abstract concept of Buddhahood and the importance of the Dhamma over the person.
      • Narrative Panels: The stories, though folk in origin, were carefully selected to teach core Buddhist principles—the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and the concept of Bodhisattva.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that early stupa-art masterfully used familiar folk imagery as a medium to convey profound and often abstract Buddhist ideals, making the faith relatable and popular among the masses.

  5. How did Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma influence the art and architecture of his time? Illustrate with examples. Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define Ashoka’s Dhamma as a secular, ethical policy adopted after the Kalinga War, and state that it became the central theme of Mauryan state-sponsored art.
    • Influence on Architecture:
      • Pillars: Explain the transformation of pillars into “pillars of Dhamma.” They were erected in public places to broadcast the edicts of Dhamma to the populace. The selection of animal capitals (lion for royalty/Shakya clan, bull for fertility, elephant for Buddha’s conception) also carried symbolic meaning related to righteousness and the Buddha’s life.
      • Stupas: Discuss Ashoka’s legendary construction of 84,000 stupas as a means of spreading Buddhist relics and, by extension, the essence of Dhamma (peace, compassion) throughout the empire.
    • Influence on Sculpture and Inscriptions:
      • Edicts: The inscriptions themselves are a form of art (calligraphy) and a direct expression of Dhamma’s principles (non-violence, tolerance, etc.).
      • Rock Art: The Dhauli elephant emerging from the rock symbolizes the peaceful emergence of Dhamma after the violence of the Kalinga war, which was fought in that region.
    • Conclusion: Reiterate that under Ashoka, Mauryan art ceased to be a mere symbol of power and became a dynamic instrument for moral and ethical education, reflecting a fundamental shift in the philosophy of governance.

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