GS Notes

1.1 - Art and Culture Notes 05

18 min read

Elaborate Notes

SOUTH INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

The genesis of monumental temple architecture in South India is credited to the Pallava dynasty, commencing around the early 7th century CE. This architectural journey began with rock-cut excavations and evolved into magnificent free-standing structural edifices, laying the foundation for the Dravida style. Art historian Percy Brown, in his work “Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods)”, has meticulously documented this evolution.

  • Phase 1: Mahendravarman Stage (c. 600-630 CE)

    • This initial phase, under the patronage of King Mahendravarman I, is characterized by rock-cut cave temples, often referred to as mandapas.
    • These were excavated from live rock formations. The process involved carving out halls from the interior of a rock face, while the exterior was largely left in its natural state.
    • These mandapas were relatively simple, consisting of a pillared hall leading to one or more sanctums (garbhagriha) at the rear. The pillars of this period are massive and square or octagonal in section.
    • A significant inscription at a temple in Mandagapattu by Mahendravarman I proudly proclaims that he created this temple for the trinity (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva) “without brick, without timber, without metal and without mortar,” highlighting the novelty of rock-cut architecture.
    • Examples include the cave temples at Mamandur, Mandagapattu, Pallavaram, and the Panchapandava cave temple at Mahabalipuram.

  • Phase 2: Narasimhavarman Stage (c. 630-668 CE)

    • Under Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla, this phase witnessed a significant innovation. The architecture moved from excavating caves to sculpting entire rock outcrops.
    • Boulders and hillocks were carved from both the outside and inside to create monolithic structures, known as rathas (chariots), which are essentially full-scale models of temples.
    • The most celebrated examples are the Pancha Pandava Rathas at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram). These five rathas are named after the Pandava brothers and their common wife:
      • Dharmaraja Ratha: The largest and most complete, it is three-storeyed and dedicated to Shiva. It established the archetypal form of the Dravidian vimana.
      • Bhima Ratha: Has an oblong plan with a wagon-vaulted roof, resembling a Buddhist chaitya hall.
      • Arjuna Ratha: A smaller, two-storeyed version of the Dharmaraja Ratha.
      • Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha: Features an apsidal plan with a tiered roof.
      • Draupadi Ratha: The smallest and simplest, shaped like a thatched hut, dedicated to the goddess Durga.
    • These rathas are crucial as they represent a transition from rock-cut to structural architecture, experimenting with different temple forms that would later be constructed with stone blocks.

  • Phase 3: Rajasimhavarman Stage (c. 690-728 CE)

    • This phase, led by Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha), marks the beginning of true structural temple construction using dressed stone blocks.
    • The defining feature introduced during this period was the tall, multi-storeyed, pyramidal tower above the garbhagriha, known as the Vimana. This became the most distinctive element of the Dravida style.
    • The temples from this period are larger and more elaborate than their predecessors.
    • Key examples include:
      • Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram: A complex of three shrines, two dedicated to Shiva and one to a reclining Vishnu. It is one of the earliest structural stone temples in South India and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its location by the sea gives it its name.
      • Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram: A large temple complex with a prominent vimana, a pillared hall (mandapa), and an enclosing wall (prakara) with subsidiary shrines, establishing the template for future Dravidian temple complexes.

  • Phase 4: Nandivarman Stage (c. 730-796 CE)

    • This final phase under later Pallava rulers like Nandivarman II saw the refinement and popularisation of the Dravida style.
    • The temples of this period were generally smaller in scale compared to the Rajasimha phase but featured refined sculptures and more complex layouts.
    • The Vaikunthaperumal Temple at Kanchipuram is the quintessential example of this stage. It is noted for its unique three-tiered sanctum and the narrative relief panels along the enclosure walls depicting the history of the Pallava dynasty.

DRAVIDA STYLE OF TEMPLE

While the Pallavas were the progenitors, the Dravida style of temple architecture reached its zenith under the patronage of the Imperial Chola dynasty (c. 850-1279 CE). They built upon the Pallava foundation to create some of the most magnificent and enduring temples in India.

  • Features:

    • Enclosure Wall (Prakara): The temple complex is enclosed by a high, fortress-like boundary wall.
    • Gateway (Gopuram): The prakaras are pierced by monumental gateways known as gopurams. In later periods (e.g., Nayaka style), the gopurams became the most dominant feature, often towering over the main vimana.
    • Vimana: The pyramidal tower above the main sanctum (garbhagriha). Unlike the curvilinear shikhara of the Nagara style, the Dravida vimana is a stepped pyramid that rises in progressively smaller tiers. The crowning element is called a shikhara or stupika (distinct from the entire tower in Nagara style).
    • Panchayatan Style: This layout, where a central shrine is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines, is found in some Dravidian temples, similar to the Nagara style. The five deities would include a main deity and four subordinate ones.
    • Mandapas: The temple complex includes several halls. The Ardhamandapa (antechamber) is often located in front of the garbhagriha. It may contain the image of the deity’s mount (e.g., Nandi for Shiva) and the flag pillar (dhvajastambha). An Antarala (vestibule) connects the mandapa to the sanctum.
    • Dvarapalas: The entrance to the garbhagriha is typically flanked by imposing sculptures of guardian figures known as dvarapalas.
    • Water Tank: A large, stepped water tank or reservoir (kalyani or pushkarni) is a mandatory feature within the temple complex, used for sacred rites.
    • Specialized Halls: Larger temples often have a Natamandapa (dance hall) for devotional performances and a Bhoga Mandapa (hall of offerings).
    • Sculptural Decoration: The tiers of the vimana and the walls of the temple are profusely decorated with sculptures of deities, demigods, and scenes from Hindu mythology.
    • Ground Plan: The basic ground plan is often based on a square, which is then expanded along the cardinal axes, sometimes referred to as a crucified ground plan, creating a complex but symmetrical layout.

  • Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur (Tanjore):

    • Commissioned by the Chola emperor Rajaraja I and completed in 1010 CE, it is a testament to the Chola empire’s power and architectural prowess.
    • It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the “Great Living Chola Temples.”
    • A remarkable engineering feat, it was constructed using granite with an interlocking technique, where stones were precisely fitted without any mortar or cementing agent.
    • Its main vimana stands at approximately 66 meters (often cited as 216 feet), making it one of the tallest in the world at the time. It is topped by a monolithic stupika weighing about 80 tons.

SUBSTYLES OF DRAVIDA TEMPLE

  • 1. Vijayanagara Style (c. 1336-1646 CE):

    • Developed under the Vijayanagara Empire, especially during the reign of Krishnadevaraya.
    • Features:
      • They continued the tradition of high enclosure walls and grand gopurams.
      • A characteristic feature is the ornate carving on pillars and walls, often depicting supernatural horses (yali), elephants, and scenes from epics. The “horse-court” (kudurai mandapam) with its rampant animal pillars is a signature element.
      • Amman Shrine: A unique innovation was the creation of a separate, dedicated shrine for the consort of the main deity (e.g., Parvati or Lakshmi), known as the Amman shrine. This reflects the growing importance of goddess worship.
      • Kalyana Mandapa: An elaborate, open, pillared hall was added to the temple complex for celebrating the symbolic annual marriage ceremony of the divine couple.
      • Some temples feature massive halls with numerous pillars, sometimes referred to as “thousand-pillared halls.”
    • Examples include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and the Hazara Rama Temple at Hampi. (Note: The summary incorrectly places Lepakshi as the location for these Hampi temples. The Veerabhadra temple at Lepakshi is a prime example of Vijayanagara art but is distinct from the Hampi temples.)

  • 2. Nayaka Style (c. 16th-18th centuries CE):

    • This style flourished under the Nayaka rulers of Madurai, who were successors to the Vijayanagara Empire. It is often considered the final, most exuberant phase of Dravida architecture.
    • Features:
      • The defining characteristic is the immense scale and number of Gopurams. These gateways are incredibly tall, covered in vibrant stucco figures of deities and mythological beings, and completely dominate the temple complex.
      • The temple complex became a veritable “temple-city,” containing large water tanks, numerous shrines, and expansive corridors.
      • Huge pillared corridors, known as prakramas, were built around the main shrines, connecting different parts of the complex.
      • The tradition of the Amman shrine, introduced by the Vijayanagara rulers, was continued and elaborated upon.
    • Examples: Meenakshi-Sundareshwarar Temple in Madurai, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam, and the Lakshmi Narayani Golden Temple in Vellore (a modern example inspired by the style).

OTHER STYLES OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

  • Vesara Style:

    • The term vesara literally means “mule,” signifying its hybrid nature. This style, predominantly developed by the Later Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Rashtrakutas, flourished in the Deccan region (modern-day Karnataka).
    • It is considered a synthesis of elements from both the northern Nagara and the southern Dravida styles. Scholars like James Fergusson first classified this as a distinct style.
    • Features:
      • Vimana: The tower is a blend, shorter and broader than the Dravida vimana, with its tiers arranged in a way that creates a profile closer to the Nagara shikhara but without the strong curvature.
      • Ambulatory: It often incorporates a covered ambulatory passage (pradakshinapatha) around the sanctum, a feature more common in Nagara temples.
      • Ground Plan: The ground plan can be square, but often explores complex shapes, including stellate (star-shaped) forms, which were later perfected by the Hoysalas.
      • Hall: Semicircular or apsidal halls, reminiscent of early Buddhist chaityas, are also a feature in some early Chalukyan temples.
    • Examples: Durga Temple and Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Papanatha Temple at Pattadakal.

  • Hoysala Style (c. 11th-14th centuries CE):

    • Developed by the Hoysala dynasty in southern Karnataka, this is technically a sub-style within the broader Vesara tradition but is distinct enough to be considered a style in its own right.
    • Features:
      • Stellate Ground Plan: Its most unique feature is the star-shaped (stellate) ground plan, which creates multiple projections and recesses on the temple walls, providing a vast surface for ornamentation.
      • Material: The temples were typically constructed using soapstone (chloritic schist), a soft stone that is easy to carve with great precision when quarried and hardens over time. This allowed for incredibly detailed and intricate sculptures.
      • Platform: Temples are often built on a raised platform called a jagati, which follows the contour of the temple and serves as a ritual circumambulation path.
      • Intricate Carvings: The walls are covered from top to bottom with friezes depicting gods, goddesses, mythological tales from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas, as well as scenes of music, dance, and daily life. The intricacy is often compared to sandalwood or ivory carving.
    • Examples: Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, Chennakeshava Temple at Belur, Chennakeshava Temple at Somanathapura. (These three sites were collectively inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2023). Doda Basappa temple at Dambal is another example.

MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE OR INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA

The arrival of Turkic rulers in the late 12th century introduced Islamic architectural principles to India. The resulting style was a synthesis of Turko-Persian and indigenous Indian traditions.

  • Trabeate vs. Arcuate Architecture | Trabeate Architecture | Arcuate Architecture | | --- | --- | --- | | Principle | The indigenous Indian style using horizontal beams placed over vertical posts (pillars). | The Islamic style based on arches, domes, and vaults to bridge space. | | Roof/Entrance | Created flat roofs and entrances using lintels (horizontal beams). | Utilized arches for entrances and domes to cover large spaces. | | Tower| Characterized by towers like the shikhara (Nagara style) and vimana (Dravida style) over the sanctum. | Characterized by minarets (towers for the call to prayer), often attached to mosques. | | Materials| Primarily stone (sandstone, granite) and brick. Mortar was used sparingly. | Primarily brick, limestone, and extensive use of mortar as a binding agent. |

  • Features of Indo-Islamic Architecture:

    • Arch and Dome: The most prominent feature, replacing the traditional pillar and beam system. This allowed for the creation of large, column-free interior spaces.
    • Use of Stone: While brick and mortar were central, Indian artisans adapted their stoneworking skills. Red sandstone, grey sandstone, and white marble were used extensively.
    • Conversion and Re-use: In the initial phase, many mosques, such as the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi, were built by demolishing Hindu and Jain temples and re-using their carved pillars and materials (spolia).
    • Aniconism: In adherence to Islamic principles, the representation of living beings (humans and animals) was largely avoided in religious structures.
    • Decoration Methods:
      • Calligraphy: Verses from the Quran were inscribed on walls using ornate calligraphy. The Kufi script, with its angular characters, was popular in the early phase.
      • Geometrical Designs: Intricate geometric patterns (arabesques) were used for surface decoration.
      • Arabesque: A specific decorative method featuring a continuous, intertwining stem with stylized leaves and flowers on both sides.
      • Pietra Dura: A technique, popularized by the Mughals, involving the inlay of polished coloured stones and semi-precious gems into marble to create images and patterns.
      • Jali Work: Intricately carved stone lattice screens were used for windows and partitions. These served both a decorative and functional purpose, allowing for ventilation while maintaining privacy and creating a play of light and shadow, symbolically representing the importance of light in Islam.
    • Water Features: Water played a significant role, with fountains, shallow pools, and small drains integrated into the design of palaces, tombs, and gardens. This reflects the Quranic imagery of Paradise.
    • Gardens: The tradition of creating formal, symmetrical gardens (charbagh - four-part garden) around tombs and palaces became a hallmark, symbolizing paradise on earth.

Prelims Pointers

  • South Indian temple architecture’s beginnings are credited to the Pallava rulers in the 7th century AD.
  • Mahendravarman stage: Characterized by rock-cut cave temples called Mandapas. Example: Mandagapattu, Mamandur.
  • Narasimhavarman stage: Known for monolithic temples carved from single rocks, called Rathas. Example: Pancha Pandava Rathas at Mahabalipuram.
  • The largest ratha is the Dharmaraja Ratha; the smallest is the Draupadi Ratha.
  • Rajasimhavarman stage: Marked the creation of the first real structural temples. Introduced the pyramidal tower known as Vimana.
  • Examples from the Rajasimhavarman stage: Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram) and Kailasanath Temple (Kanchi).
  • Nandivarman stage: Consolidated the Dravida style. Example: Vaikunthaperumal Temple (Kanchi).
  • The Dravida style reached its climax under the Imperial Chola dynasty.
  • Key features of Dravida style: high enclosure wall (prakara), entrance gateway (gopuram), pyramidal tower (vimana), and a large water tank (kalyani).
  • Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur was built by Chola king Rajaraja I in 1011 AD.
  • The Brihadeeswara Temple was built using an interlocking pattern of stones without a cementing agent. Its vimana is about 66 meters high.
  • Vijayanagara Style features:
    1. Introduction of the Amman Shrine (a separate shrine for the main god’s consort).
    2. Creation of Kalyana Mandapa for annual divine marriage ceremonies.
    3. Pillars with carvings of supernatural horses (yali).
  • Nayaka Style features:
    1. Extremely large and ornate Gopurams that dominate the temple complex.
    2. Massive pillared corridors known as prakrama.
  • Vesara Style:
    1. A hybrid style, combining elements of Nagara and Dravida architecture.
    2. Developed by the Chalukyas of Karnataka.
    3. Examples: Durga Temple (Aihole), Papanath Temple (Pattadakal).
  • Hoysala Style:
    1. Developed by the Hoysala rulers of Karnataka.
    2. Distinctive feature: Stellate (star-shaped) ground plan.
    3. Material used: Soapstone (chloritic schist), which is soft and ideal for intricate carving.
    4. Examples: Temples at Belur, Halebidu, and Somanathapura.
  • Trabeate Architecture: Indian style based on pillar and beam (lintel).
  • Arcuate Architecture: Indo-Islamic style based on arch and dome.
  • Indo-Islamic Decoration Techniques:
    1. Calligraphy: Using scripts like Kufi to write Quranic verses.
    2. Arabesque: Geometrical designs with intertwined stems and leaves.
    3. Pietra Dura: Inlaying semi-precious stones into marble.
    4. Jali Work: Intricately carved stone lattice screens.

Mains Insights

  • Evolution as a Reflection of State Power and Technology: The transition from rock-cut caves (Mahendravarman) to monolithic rathas (Narasimhavarman) and finally to massive structural temples (Rajasimhavarman and the Cholas) is a direct indicator of the evolution of political stability, economic prosperity, and technological advancement. Grand temples like the Brihadeeswara were not just religious centres but also powerful statements of imperial sovereignty and the king’s devotion (bhakti).

  • The Temple as a Socio-Economic Nucleus: Dravidian temples, particularly under the Cholas, evolved into complex institutions. The enclosure walls (prakaras) did not just provide security but demarcated a sacred space that was the hub of community life. Temples were major landowners, employers, schools (ghatikas), centres for arts (dance, music), and even banks, playing a crucial role in the administration and economy of the region.

  • Cultural Synthesis and Regional Identity:

    • Vesara Style: This style represents a creative synthesis in the Deccan, a geographical and cultural crossroads between North and South India. It demonstrates how artisans and patrons were not rigidly bound by stylistic “rules” but adapted and blended elements to create a unique regional architectural identity.
    • Indo-Islamic Architecture: This is the quintessential example of cultural syncretism in India. The fusion of the Islamic arcuate system (arch, dome) with Indian trabeate techniques and decorative sensibilities (e.g., use of local stone, intricate jali work by Indian artisans) created a style that was uniquely “Indian” and distinct from architecture in Persia or Central Asia. This reflects the broader process of cultural assimilation in medieval India.

  • Continuity and Change in Architectural Traditions:

    • Vijayanagara and Nayaka: These styles demonstrate continuity with the Chola tradition (grand scale, multiple enclosures) but also introduce innovations like the Amman shrine and Kalyana Mandapa. This reflects changing religious currents, such as the rising prominence of goddess worship within the orthodox framework. The increasing ornamentation and scale of the gopurams in the Nayaka period show a shift in architectural focus from the main shrine to the gateway, making the temple more accessible and visually imposing to the public.

  • Ideological Underpinnings of Architecture:

    • Theocratic Symbolism: The towering vimana or shikhara symbolizes the cosmic mountain Meru, the axis mundi. The temple itself is a microcosm of the universe.
    • Assertion of a New Order: The initial phase of Islamic architecture, involving the use of spolia (reused material from demolished temples) in structures like the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, was a powerful political and religious statement of conquest and the imposition of a new ruling ideology. Later, the development of a mature, synthesized Indo-Islamic style signified a move towards a more settled and integrated polity.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the cultural history of India, the term ‘Panchayatan’ refers to (2014) (a) an assembly of village elders (b) a religious sect (c) a style of temple construction (d) an administrative functionary Answer: (c) a style of temple construction (Note: Although older than 5 years, this question is highly relevant and foundational.)

  2. Consider the following statements: (2023)

    1. In the post-pandemic recent past, many central banks worldwide had carried out interest rate hikes.
    2. Central banks generally assume that they have the ability to counteract the rising consumer prices via monetary policy means. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2 (Note: Sometimes UPSC asks questions that are not directly related to the core syllabus in a way that seems obvious. This is an example from 2023. Searching for direct art and culture questions from the last 5 years reveals fewer than expected on this specific topic, so I will include closely related or methodologically similar questions from the subject area.)

    Let’s find more topic-specific questions from a slightly broader timeframe to be more useful.

  3. With reference to the art and archaeological history of India, which one among the following was made earliest? (2015) (a) Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar (b) Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli (c) Rock-cut Monuments at Mahabalipuram (d) Varaha Image at Udayagiri Answer: (b) Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli (This tests chronological understanding. Dhauli elephant is Mauryan (c. 3rd Century BCE), Udayagiri is Gupta (c. 5th Century CE), Mahabalipuram is Pallava (c. 7th Century CE), and Lingaraja Temple is later (c. 11th Century CE).)

  4. Which of the following is/are famous for Sun temples? (2017)

    1. Arasavalli
    2. Amarakantak
    3. Omkareshwar Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (a) 1 only (This tests knowledge of specific temple locations. Arasavalli in Andhra Pradesh has a famous Sun temple. Amarkantak and Omkareshwar are famous for Shiva temples.)

  5. The well-known painting “Bani Thani” belongs to the (2018) (a) Bundi school (b) Jaipur school (c) Kangra school (d) Kishangarh school Answer: (d) Kishangarh school (This question is on painting, but shows the kind of specific factual recall required for Art & Culture.)

  6. Consider the following pairs: (2019) Craft :: Heritage of

    1. Puthukkuli shawls :: Tamil Nadu
    2. Sujni embroidery :: Maharashtra
    3. Upada Jamdani saris :: Karnataka Which of the pairs given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 Answer: (a) 1 only (Another example of specific cultural knowledge tested in Prelims.)

Mains

  1. The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art and history. Discuss. (2020)

  2. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. (2022)

  3. Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss. (2018)

  4. Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction of the history of India. (2018) (While not directly on architecture, this question relates to the sources used to study cultural history, including temples and monuments.)

  5. Indian philosophy and tradition played a significant role in conceiving and shaping the monuments and their art in the Indian subcontinent. Discuss. (2020)

Graph View