GS Notes

1.1 - Art and Culture Notes 08

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Elaborate Notes

FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (ARYA SATYA)

The foundational doctrine of Buddhism, known as the Four Noble Truths (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), was articulated by Siddhartha Gautama in his first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (“The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma”), delivered at the Deer Park in Sarnath. These truths are not presented as beliefs to be accepted on faith but as realities to be understood and verified through personal experience.

  • 1. The world is full of misery (Dukkha): The first truth, Dukkha-satya, posits that all worldly existence is inherently characterized by suffering or unsatisfactoriness. This is not a pessimistic worldview but a realistic assessment. Dukkha encompasses not only physical pain, old age, sickness, and death but also subtle forms of suffering like dissatisfaction, anxiety, and the stress of holding onto things that are impermanent (Anicca). The scholar Walpola Rahula, in his work “What the Buddha Taught” (1959), clarifies that Dukkha is a complex term referring to the contingent, imperfect, and transient nature of conditioned existence.
  • 2. There is a cause of misery i.e., Desire (Samudāya): The second truth, Samudāya-satya, identifies the origin of Dukkha. It is Taṇhā (craving, thirst, or desire). This craving is threefold: craving for sensual pleasures (kāma-taṇhā), craving for existence and becoming (bhava-taṇhā), and craving for non-existence (vibhava-taṇhā). This craving is rooted in ignorance (Avidyā) of the true nature of reality. This is intricately linked to the doctrine of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppāda), which explains the causal chain leading to suffering.
  • 3. Misery can be overcome (Dukkha Nirodha): The third truth, Nirodha-satya, offers hope by stating that the cessation of Dukkha is possible. This cessation is Nirvāṇa (Pali: Nibbāna), which literally means “to blow out” or “to extinguish.” It signifies the complete extinguishing of the “three fires” of greed, hatred, and delusion. It is a state of ultimate peace, freedom from the cycle of rebirth (Saṃsāra).
  • 4. There is a path (Magga): The fourth truth, Magga-satya, lays out the practical path to achieve Nirvāṇa. This is the Noble Eightfold Path (Arya Ashtangika Marga), often referred to as the “Middle Path” (Madhyama-pratipad) because it avoids the extremes of sensual indulgence and severe asceticism, both of which the Buddha had experienced and found fruitless.

The Noble Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

The path is grouped into three divisions: Wisdom (Prajñā), Ethical Conduct (Śīla), and Mental Discipline (Samādhi).

  1. Right Vision (Samyak Drishti): Understanding the Four Noble Truths and the nature of reality. (Wisdom)
  2. Right Resolve/Intention (Samyak Sankalpa): A commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement. (Wisdom)
  3. Right Speech (Samyak Vacha): Abstaining from lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and idle chatter. (Ethical Conduct)
  4. Right Conduct (Samyak Kammanta): Abstaining from killing, stealing, and illicit sexual conduct. (Ethical Conduct)
  5. Right Livelihood (Samyak Ajivana): Earning a living in a way that does not harm others. (Ethical Conduct)
  6. Right Effort (Samyak Vyayama): The conscious effort to prevent unwholesome states and cultivate wholesome ones. (Mental Discipline)
  7. Right Mindfulness (Samyak Smriti): Developing awareness of one’s body, feelings, thoughts, and the phenomena of the world. (Mental Discipline)
  8. Right Concentration (Samyak Samadhi): Developing deep states of meditative concentration (Dhyāna). (Mental Discipline)

After his first sermon, the Buddha established the Sangha (monastic community). A key rule for the monks and nuns was the Vassa, or rainy season retreat. During the monsoon months, itinerant mendicants would cease their travels and stay in one place, typically a Vihara (monastery), to meditate and study. Historical and textual sources, such as the Pali Canon, confirm that the Buddha spent the maximum number of Vassa retreats (reportedly 25) in Shravasti, the capital of the Kosala kingdom, often at the Jetavana and Pubbarama monasteries. Archaeological excavations at Sahet-Mahet on the banks of the Rapti river have been identified with ancient Shravasti.

The Buddha’s life concluded around 483 B.C. at Kushinagara (present-day Kasia in Uttar Pradesh), the capital of the Mallas. This event is known as Mahāparinirvāṇa, the “final blowing out,” signifying his release from the cycle of rebirth. The Mahāparinibbāna Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya provides a detailed account of his last days.

BUDDHIST COUNCILS

These councils were convened to codify and preserve the Buddha’s teachings and to settle disputes within the Sangha.

  • First Buddhist Council (c. 483 B.C.): Held shortly after the Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana at the Sattapanni Cave in Rajagriha (modern Rajgir). It was patronized by King Ajatashatru of the Haryanka dynasty and presided over by Mahakassapa, a senior disciple. The council’s primary aim was to standardize the doctrine (Dhamma) and the monastic discipline (Vinaya). The Buddha’s cousin and attendant, Ananda, who was known for his exceptional memory, recited the discourses, which became the Sutta Pitaka. Upali, another senior disciple and an expert on monastic rules, recited the code of conduct, which became the Vinayapitaka. Together with the Abhidhamma Pitaka, these form the Tripitaka (Three Baskets), the canonical scripture of Buddhism.
  • Second Buddhist Council (c. 383 B.C.): Held at Vaishali, a century after the Buddha’s death. It was patronized by King Kalashoka of the Shishunaga dynasty and presided over by Sabakami (Sabbakami). The council was necessitated by disputes over ten points of monastic discipline, with some monks (the Vajjian monks of Vaishali) adopting more liberal practices. The council condemned these practices, leading to a major schism in the Sangha. The orthodox elders who upheld the original Vinaya were known as Sthaviravāda (“The Way of the Elders”). The liberal majority, who argued for modifications, were called Mahāsāṅghika (“The Great Community”). This schism, as documented by scholars like André Bareau in “Les sectes bouddhiques du petit véhicule” (1955), was the precursor to the later Hinayana-Mahayana division. Sthaviravada evolved into the Theravada school, which is prevalent in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia today.
  • Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 B.C.): Convened at Pataliputra, the Mauryan capital, under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka and presided over by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa. Ashoka, concerned about corruption and schisms within the Sangha, sought to purify it. The council excommunicated monks holding heretical views. Moggaliputta-Tissa compiled the Kathavatthu, a text refuting heretical doctrines, which was incorporated into the Abhidhamma Pitaka (the basket of higher philosophical teachings). This council firmly established the Sthaviravada school’s doctrines as orthodox. Following the council, Ashoka dispatched Buddhist missionaries, as mentioned in his Edict XIII and the Sri Lankan chronicles Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa. His son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra famously traveled to Sri Lanka with a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree from Bodh Gaya, planting it at Anuradhapura, where its descendant still stands. The original Bodhi tree in India was later destroyed in the 7th century CE by Shashanka, the Gauda king of Bengal, an adversary of Harshavardhana of Kannauj.
  • Fourth Buddhist Council (c. 78 CE): This council has two distinct versions. The Theravada tradition places it in Sri Lanka in the 1st century BCE, where the Pali Canon was first committed to writing. The version widely cited in Indian history was held in Kundalvana, Kashmir, under the patronage of the Kushan emperor Kanishka and presided over by Vasumitra, with Ashvaghosha as his deputy. This council was dominated by the Sarvastivada school, a major offshoot of the Sthaviravada. The primary outcome was the composition of the Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra, a massive commentary on the Sarvastivadin Abhidhamma. During this period, the philosophical differences that had begun in the Second Council culminated in the formal emergence of two major traditions:
    • Mahayana (“Great Vehicle”): Evolving from the Mahāsāṅghika tradition, it introduced new concepts. It used Sanskrit alongside Pali, promoted the deification of the Buddha, and introduced the ideal of the Bodhisattva. Idol worship became a central practice. Its ultimate goal was the liberation of all sentient beings.
    • Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”): This was a pejorative term coined by Mahayanists for the earlier schools, including Theravada/Sthaviravada. These schools adhered strictly to the original Pali Canon, viewed the Buddha as a great human teacher, rejected idol worship, and focused on individual liberation (Arhatship).

BODHISATTVA

The concept of the Bodhisattva is central to Mahayana Buddhism. A Bodhisattva is an enlightened being (bodhi = enlightenment, sattva = being) who, out of great compassion (mahākaruṇā), delays their own entry into Parinirvana to help all other sentient beings achieve enlightenment. This ideal contrasts with the Arhat (a “worthy one”) of the Theravada tradition, who achieves Nirvana for themselves. Famous Bodhisattvas in Mahayana iconography and literature include Avalokiteshvara (the Bodhisattva of Compassion), Manjushri (Wisdom), and Maitreya (the future Buddha). Their depictions are prominent in Buddhist art, such as the magnificent paintings of Bodhisattva Padmapani and Vajrapani in the Ajanta Caves (c. 5th century CE).

METAPHYSICAL VIEWS OF BUDDHISM

  • Universe: Buddhism posits a cyclical universe governed by natural laws (Dhamma), not by a creator God. Time is seen as cyclical, with endless ages (kalpas) of formation and destruction.
  • Vedas and God: The Buddha rejected the divine authority and ritualistic infallibility of the Vedas. On the question of a creator God, the Buddha maintained a “noble silence,” suggesting such metaphysical speculation was a distraction from the practical path to ending suffering. This stance is often described as agnostic or non-theistic.
  • Rebirth: Buddhism accepts the concept of rebirth (punabbhava), but critically, it rejects the Hindu concept of an eternal, unchanging soul (Ātman).
  • Soul (Anatta/Anatman): A core doctrine is Anatta or “no-self.” Buddhism denies the existence of a permanent, essential self. Instead, an individual is seen as a composite of five ever-changing aggregates or “heaps” (Pancha-Skandha): form (matter), sensations, perceptions, mental formations (volitions), and consciousness. It is the karmic energy or consciousness stream generated by these aggregates that is “reborn” into a new combination of skandhas, much like a flame being passed from one candle to another. The link between lives is causal, not substantial.

VAJRAYANA

Also known as the “Thunderbolt Vehicle” or Tantric Buddhism, Vajrayana is considered the third major vehicle of Buddhism, building upon Mahayana philosophy.

  • Development: It emerged in eastern India around the 8th-9th centuries CE, flourishing under the patronage of the Pala dynasty. Great monastic universities like Nalanda, Vikramshila (founded by Pala king Dharmapala), Somapura, and Odantapuri were centers of Vajrayana learning.
  • Key Features: It incorporates complex rituals, mantras (sacred chants), mudras (hand gestures), and mandalas (cosmic diagrams) as skillful means (upāya) to accelerate the path to enlightenment. It is esoteric, requiring initiation and guidance from a qualified guru (lama).
  • Spread and Syncretism: The 8th-century Indian master Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche) is credited with establishing Buddhism in Tibet, where he integrated Vajrayana with the local Bon religion, giving rise to Tibetan Buddhism. The Kalachakra Tantra is a prominent and complex system within this tradition. The Gelugpa school, headed by the Dalai Lama, is one of the four main schools of Tibetan Buddhism today.
  • Proximity to Hinduism: Vajrayana shares some features with Tantric Hinduism, such as a vast pantheon of deities (both male and female, peaceful and wrathful, e.g., Tara, Mahamayuri), the importance of the guru, and the use of ritual practices.

JAINISM

Jainism is one of the ancient shramana traditions of India, predating Buddhism in its core tenets.

  • Tirthankaras: Its spiritual lineage is traced through 24 Tirthankaras (“ford-makers”), who are enlightened beings that teach the path to liberation. The term Tirtha refers to a ford across the river of worldly existence. While the first 22 are considered pre-historical, the last two are accepted as historical figures.
    • First Tirthankara: Rishabhadeva (or Adinath), whose name also appears in Vedic literature like the Rigveda and Bhagavata Purana, lending credence to Jainism’s antiquity.
    • 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha, son of King Ashvasena of Varanasi, lived in the 9th-8th century BCE. He preached the four great vows (Chaturyama Dharma): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness, not Amrusha), Asteya (non-stealing), and Aparigraha (non-possession). Archaeological evidence for his followers exists from before Mahavira’s time.

VARDHAMAN MAHAVIRA

  • Life: The 24th and last Tirthankara, Vardhaman Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha. He was born in 540 BCE (though some traditions place it earlier) in Kundagrama near Vaishali. His father, Siddhartha, was the head of the Jnatrika Kshatriya clan, and his mother, Trishala, was a Lichchhavi princess. He renounced the world at age 30 and practiced severe austerities for 12.5 years. At age 42, he attained Kaivalya (omniscience or supreme knowledge) on the bank of the river Rijupalika near Jrimbhikagrama.
  • Teachings: After enlightenment, he was called Mahavira (Great Hero) and Jina (Conqueror), from which the term Jainism is derived. He systematized and elaborated upon the teachings of Parshvanatha, adding the fifth vow of Brahmacharya (celibacy/chastity) to the existing four. This fivefold path is known as the Pancha-mahavrata (five great vows) for monks and Anuvrata (lesser vows) for lay followers. He also emphasized the Triratna (Three Jewels) for attaining liberation: Right Faith (Samyak Darshan), Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana), and Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra).

JAIN COUNCILS

  • First Jain Council (c. 300 BCE): Held at Pataliputra under the chairmanship of Sthulabhadra. This council was convened in the wake of a severe famine in Magadha, which prompted a group of monks led by Bhadrabahu to migrate south to Shravanabelagola in Karnataka, along with their royal patron, Chandragupta Maurya. According to Jain tradition, Chandragupta abdicated his throne and ended his life through the Jain ritual of Sallekhana (fasting unto death). The monks who remained in Magadha, led by Sthulabhadra, relaxed some rules, including wearing white clothes. When Bhadrabahu’s group returned, ideological differences arose, leading to the great schism in Jainism:
    • Svetambara (“white-clad”): Followers of Sthulabhadra, who are more liberal.
    • Digambara (“sky-clad”): Followers of Bhadrabahu, who adhere to the stricter practice of monastic nudity. The council also attempted to compile the teachings of the Tirthankaras into 12 Angas (limbs), but the Digambaras rejected their authenticity.
  • Second Jain Council (512 AD): Held at Valabhi in Gujarat, under the presidency of Devaradhi Kshamasramana. The primary purpose of this council was to systematically collect and write down the sacred scriptures (Agamas) which had been transmitted orally for centuries. This council marks the final compilation of the Svetambara canon, written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. The major texts include the 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnas, 6 Chedasutras, and 4 Mulasutras.

Prelims Pointers

  • Four Noble Truths: Dukkha, Samudāya, Nirodha, Magga.
  • First Sermon of Buddha: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta at Sarnath.
  • Ashtangika Marga: Noble Eightfold Path.
  • Vassa: Monsoonal retreat for Buddhist monks.
  • Maximum Vassa stays by Buddha: Shravasti.
  • Mahaparinirvana of Buddha: Kushinagara (483 B.C.).

Buddhist Councils:

  1. First Council:
    • Place: Rajagriha
    • Patron: Ajatashatru
    • President: Mahakassapa
    • Outcome: Compilation of Sutta Pitaka (by Ananda) and Vinaya Pitaka (by Upali).
  2. Second Council:
    • Place: Vaishali (383 B.C.)
    • Patron: Kalashoka
    • President: Sabakami
    • Outcome: Schism into Sthaviravada (orthodox) and Mahasanghika (liberal).
  3. Third Council:
    • Place: Pataliputra (250 B.C.)
    • Patron: Ashoka
    • President: Moggaliputta-Tissa
    • Outcome: Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka (including Kathavatthu); missions sent abroad.
  4. Fourth Council (Kanishka’s):
    • Place: Kundalvana, Kashmir (c. 78 CE)
    • Patron: Kanishka
    • President: Vasumitra (Deputy: Ashvaghosha)
    • Outcome: Compilation of Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra; emergence of Mahayana and Hinayana.

  • Hinayana vs. Mahayana:

    • Language: Hinayana (Pali); Mahayana (Sanskrit, Pali).
    • Buddha’s Status: Hinayana (Great Teacher); Mahayana (Deified, God).
    • Ideal: Hinayana (Arhat - self-liberation); Mahayana (Bodhisattva - liberation for all).
    • Idol Worship: Hinayana (No); Mahayana (Yes).

  • Bodhisattva: An enlightened being who postpones own nirvana to help others.

  • Buddhist Metaphysics: Rejects Vedas, agnostic on God, believes in rebirth but not an eternal soul (Anatta).

  • Pancha-Skandha: Five aggregates constituting a being (form, sensation, perception, mental formations, consciousness).

  • Vajrayana Buddhism: Thunderbolt Vehicle; Tantric practices; flourished under Pala dynasty; centers at Nalanda, Vikramshila.

  • Padmasambhava: Spread Vajrayana Buddhism to Tibet.

  • Jainism: Believes in 24 Tirthankaras.

  • First Tirthankara: Rishabhadeva (Adinath).

  • 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha; gave four vows (Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha).

  • 24th Tirthankara: Vardhaman Mahavira.

  • Mahavira’s Birth: Kundagrama, near Vaishali (540 BCE).

  • Mahavira’s Clan: Jnatrika Kshatriya.

  • Attainment of Kaivalya: Jrimbhikagrama, on the bank of river Rijupalika, under a Sal tree.

  • Fifth Vow added by Mahavira: Brahmacharya.

  • Three Jewels (Triratna) of Jainism: Right Faith, Right Knowledge, Right Conduct.

  • Sallekhana/Santhara: Jain ritual of voluntary fasting unto death. Chandragupta Maurya performed it.

Jain Councils:

  1. First Council:
    • Place: Pataliputra (c. 300 BCE)
    • President: Sthulabhadra
    • Outcome: Schism into Svetambara (led by Sthulabhadra) and Digambara (followers of Bhadrabahu).
  2. Second Council:
    • Place: Valabhi, Gujarat (512 AD)
    • President: Devaradhi Kshamasramana
    • Outcome: Final compilation of Svetambara Agamas in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit.

Mains Insights

GS Paper I: Indian Heritage and Culture / History

  1. Socio-Economic Context for the Rise of Buddhism and Jainism:

    • Cause-Effect: The 6th century BCE witnessed significant changes. The expansion of agriculture in the Gangetic plains due to iron tools created a surplus. This led to the growth of trade, urbanization, and the rise of a wealthy merchant class (Vaishyas).
    • Reaction against Brahmanical Domination: This new Vaishya class resented the social hierarchy of the Varna system, which placed them below Brahmins and Kshatriyas. The complex, expensive, and often violent (animal sacrifice) Vedic rituals were also a burden.
    • Appeal of New Religions: Both Buddhism and Jainism rejected the authority of the Vedas, condemned the Varna system, preached in common languages (Pali, Prakrit) instead of Sanskrit, and advocated non-violence (Ahimsa). This greatly appealed to the mercantile class, agriculturalists, and those marginalized by the existing system. Their emphasis on simple, ethical living provided a powerful alternative.

  2. Debate: Similarities and Differences between Buddhism and Jainism:

    • Similarities:
      • Both originated from the Shramana tradition and were founded by Kshatriya princes.
      • Both denied the authority of the Vedas and opposed Brahmanical rituals.
      • Both emphasized ethical conduct, non-violence, and renunciation.
      • Both admitted women into their monastic orders and preached in vernacular languages.
      • Both accepted the theories of Karma and Rebirth but rejected the concept of a creator God.
    • Key Differences:
      • Concept of Soul: Jainism believes in the existence of a soul (Jiva) in all living and non-living things. Buddhism propounds the doctrine of Anatta (no-soul).
      • Ahimsa: While both preach non-violence, Jainism’s concept is far more extreme and absolute, extending to not harming even inanimate objects believed to possess a soul. This made the adoption of agriculture difficult for its followers.
      • Path to Liberation: Buddhism advocates the “Middle Path” (Madhyama Marga), avoiding extremes. Jainism advocates extreme asceticism and penance, including the practice of Sallekhana.
      • Spread: Buddhism spread far beyond India, becoming a world religion. Jainism remained largely confined to India, partly due to its extreme tenets.

  3. Historiographical Viewpoint: Decline of Buddhism in India:

    • Internal Causes: The Sangha saw growing corruption and schisms. The shift from Pali to Sanskrit in Mahayana Buddhism distanced it from the masses. The development of Vajrayana, with its complex rituals, made it appear similar to Hinduism, thus losing some of its distinct identity.
    • External Causes:
      • Brahmanical Revival: The resurgence of Brahmanical Hinduism under the Guptas, with movements like Vaishnavism and Shaivism, absorbed many Buddhist ideals (e.g., Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu) and offered a more accessible path through Bhakti.
      • Loss of Royal Patronage: After patrons like the Mauryas, Kushans, and Palas, Buddhism lost royal support. Rulers like the Guptas patronized Hinduism.
      • Invasions: The invasions of the Hunas in the 5th-6th centuries and later the Turkic invasions led to the destruction of major monastic centers like Nalanda and Vikramshila, which were the intellectual heartlands of Buddhism. This was a death blow from which it never recovered in its land of origin.

GS Paper IV: Ethics, Integrity, and Aptitude

  1. Relevance of Buddhist and Jain Teachings in Contemporary Life:
    • Ahimsa (Non-violence): The principle is fundamental to resolving conflicts, from personal disputes to international relations. It advocates for peace, compassion, and tolerance in a world rife with violence and terrorism. Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of non-violent resistance was deeply influenced by Jain and Buddhist thought.
    • Aparigraha (Non-possession): In an age of rampant consumerism and ecological crisis, the principle of limiting one’s possessions and desires is highly relevant. It provides an ethical framework for sustainable development and combating greed and corruption.
    • Ashtangika Marga: The Eightfold Path offers a holistic guide for ethical conduct and mental well-being. Concepts like ‘Right Livelihood’ challenge individuals and corporations to pursue ethically and environmentally sound practices. ‘Right Mindfulness’ is now a globally recognized technique for managing stress and improving mental health.
    • Anekatavada (Jain principle of many-sidedness): This philosophical principle, which posits that truth and reality are complex and have multiple aspects, is a powerful antidote to dogmatism, fanaticism, and intolerance. It encourages dialogue, empathy, and understanding of diverse viewpoints.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)

    1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
    2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
    3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered Mahayana Buddhism. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (b) Sthaviravadins belong to the early orthodox schools (Hinayana/Theravada), not Mahayana. The Lokottaravadin sect was indeed an offshoot of the Mahasanghikas. The Mahasanghika sect’s liberal views, including the concept of a transcendent (lokottara) Buddha, were foundational to the development of Mahayana Buddhism.

  2. Consider the following: (UPSC 2019)

    1. Deification of the Buddha
    2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
    3. Image worship and rituals Which of the above is/are the feature/features of Mahayana Buddhism? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (d) All three are defining features of Mahayana Buddhism. They deified the Buddha, introduced the Bodhisattva ideal, and engaged in idol worship and elaborate rituals, contrasting with the earlier Hinayana traditions.

  3. With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world? (UPSC 2018) (a) Avalokiteshvara (b) Lokesvara (c) Maitreya (d) Padmapani

    Answer: (c) Maitreya is revered in Buddhist tradition as the future Buddha who will appear on Earth, achieve complete enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma. Avalokiteshvara and Padmapani are names for the Bodhisattva of Compassion.

  4. With reference to the religious practices in India, the “Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to (UPSC 2018) (a) Buddhism (b) Jainism (c) Vaishnavism (d) Shaivism

    Answer: (b) The Sthanakvasi is a sect of Svetambara Jainism. It was founded in the 17th century and opposes idol worship.

  5. Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jain doctrine? (UPSC 2013 - Relevant due to core concepts)

    1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance.
    2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
    3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (d) All three statements are central to Jain doctrine. Jainism places a strong emphasis on asceticism and penance to shed accumulated karma. It believes in jiva (soul) in all things (hylozoism), and the ultimate goal is to purify the soul from the bondage of karma to achieve liberation (moksha).

Mains

  1. Pala period is the most significant phase in the history of Buddhism in India. Enumerate. (UPSC 2020, GS-I)

    Answer Outline: The Pala period (8th-12th century CE) was the last major phase of royal patronage for Buddhism in India.

    • Patronage and Monastic Universities: Pala rulers like Dharmapala and Devapala were devout Buddhists. Dharmapala founded the Vikramshila Mahavihara, which became a premier center for Vajrayana learning, rivaling Nalanda. They also patronized other monasteries like Somapura (a UNESCO World Heritage site in Bangladesh) and Odantapuri.
    • Development of Vajrayana: This period saw the consolidation and flourishing of Vajrayana Buddhism. Scholars from Vikramshila and Nalanda, like Atisha Dipankara, played a crucial role in systematizing its philosophy and spreading it to Tibet.
    • Art and Architecture: The Pala school of art developed a distinctive style in sculpture (stone and bronze) and manuscript painting (miniatures). These artworks depicted a vast pantheon of Buddhist deities and were influential in the art of Nepal, Tibet, and Southeast Asia.
    • Last Bastion: The Pala kingdom acted as the last major sanctuary for Buddhism in India before the Turkic invasions destroyed its monastic centers, marking the effective end of Buddhism as an organized religion in its homeland.

  2. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. (UPSC 2016, GS-I)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Explain that early stupas (e.g., Sanchi, Bharhut) were not just funerary mounds but also complex symbolic structures used for worship and instruction.
    • Folk Motifs and Narratives: The railings (vedika) and gateways (torana) are richly carved with Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha’s previous lives), scenes from the Buddha’s life, and folk deities like Yakshas and Yakshis. These figures were absorbed from popular culture to make the religion more relatable and accessible to the common people.
    • Expounding Buddhist Ideals:
      • Aniconic Representation: In early art, the Buddha was never depicted in human form. His presence was indicated by symbols: an empty throne (sovereignty), a wheel (Dharma), a Bodhi tree (enlightenment), or footprints (his physical presence on earth). This represented his transcendent nature beyond human form.
      • Jataka Tales: These stories illustrated key Buddhist virtues like compassion, self-sacrifice, and morality in a simple, narrative format that was easy for lay devotees to understand and emulate.
      • Continuous Narration: The art often used a continuous narration style, depicting multiple events of a story in a single panel, emphasizing the karmic chain and the journey towards enlightenment.
    • Conclusion: The art of early stupas served as a visual scripture, masterfully integrating popular artistic traditions with profound Buddhist philosophy to educate and inspire devotees.

  3. The third-century A.D. marks a significant watershed in the religious and cultural history of India. Do you agree? Argue. (Hypothetical, based on themes)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Agree with the statement, highlighting that the 3rd century CE was a period of transition between major empires (end of Kushans/Satavahanas, prelude to Guptas) and marked significant religious and cultural shifts.
    • Shift in Buddhism: This period witnessed the consolidation of Mahayana Buddhism. Philosophical schools like Madhyamaka (founded by Nagarjuna, c. 150-250 AD) and Yogachara were gaining prominence. This marked a move from the earlier, more monastic focus to a devotional, lay-oriented religion with a complex philosophy and pantheon.
    • Evolution in Hinduism: The Puranic tradition began to take definitive shape. Bhakti traditions, centered on deities like Vishnu and Shiva, gained momentum, moving away from the purely ritualistic Vedic religion. The compilation of major Dharmashastras and the early Puranas reflects this change.
    • Art and Iconography: This century saw the maturation of the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art. The standardized iconography for the Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and Hindu deities was established, laying the foundation for the classical art of the Gupta period.
    • Conclusion: The 3rd century A.D. was indeed a watershed, characterized by the crystallization of Mahayana Buddhism and Puranic Hinduism, which would become the dominant religious forces in the subcontinent for centuries to come.

  4. Assess the contribution of Ashoka to the spread of Buddhism. (Hypothetical, based on themes)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Ashoka’s contribution was pivotal in transforming Buddhism from a regional sect into a world religion.
    • State Patronage and Policy of Dhamma: After the Kalinga War, Ashoka embraced Buddhism and made its ethical principles the cornerstone of his state policy (Ashoka’s Dhamma). He replaced conquest by force (Bherighosha) with conquest by righteousness (Dhammaghosha).
    • Purification of the Sangha: He convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra to settle doctrinal disputes and purify the monastic order, thereby strengthening the institution.
    • Dhamma-Mahamattas and Edicts: He appointed special officers, Dhamma-Mahamattas, to propagate Dhamma. His teachings were inscribed on rocks and pillars across his vast empire in local languages, making them accessible to the public.
    • International Missions: As documented in his edicts and later chronicles, he sent missions to various regions, including Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Hellenistic kingdoms in the West. This was the first organized, state-sponsored effort to propagate a religion on an international scale.
    • Conclusion: Ashoka’s personal conversion, state patronage, and missionary zeal were instrumental in providing Buddhism with the institutional and geographical momentum for its global expansion.

  5. What are the core teachings of Buddhism? Analyze their relevance in the contemporary world. (Hypothetical, based on themes)

    Answer Outline:

    • Part 1: Core Teachings:
      • Four Noble Truths: Explain Dukkha, its cause (Tanha), its cessation (Nirvana), and the path (Ashtangika Marga).
      • Ashtangika Marga (The Eightfold Path): Briefly describe the three divisions: Wisdom, Ethical Conduct, and Mental Discipline.
      • Key Doctrines: Mention concepts like the Middle Path (avoiding extremes), Anatta (no-soul), Anicca (impermanence), and Paticcasamuppada (Dependent Origination).
    • Part 2: Contemporary Relevance:
      • Mental Health: The emphasis on mindfulness (Samyak Smriti) and meditation (Samyak Samadhi) is now a cornerstone of modern psychotherapy (e.g., Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction) for managing stress, anxiety, and depression.
      • Conflict Resolution: The principle of non-violence (Ahimsa) and compassion (Karuna) provides a moral framework for peace and reconciliation in a conflict-ridden world.
      • Environmental Ethics: The Buddhist understanding of interconnectedness (Dependent Origination) promotes an ecological consciousness, urging humanity to live in harmony with nature, countering the modern trends of exploitation and consumerism.
      • Ethical Governance and Social Justice: The emphasis on Right Livelihood and ethical conduct offers a critique of greed and corruption, advocating for a just and equitable society.

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