1.1 - Art and Culture Notes 09

Elaborate Notes

JAINISM

Sects of Jainism: Shwetambara and Digambara

The division of Jainism into two major sects, Shwetambara (‘white-clad’) and Digambara (‘sky-clad’), is a significant event in its history. This schism, which crystallized around the 3rd century BCE, stemmed from differing interpretations of monastic discipline and doctrine.

• Historical Context: According to tradition, a great famine lasting 12 years occurred in Magadha during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322–298 BCE). A large group of Jain monks, led by the sage Bhadrabahu, migrated south to Shravanabelagola in present-day Karnataka to survive. Another group, led by Sthulabhadra, remained in Magadha.

• The First Jain Council: When the monks who had migrated south returned to Magadha, they found that the monks who stayed behind had adopted new practices, including wearing white clothes and relaxing the rule of complete nudity. Sthulabhadra convened the First Jain Council at Pataliputra (c. 300 BCE) to codify the Jain canon. The southern monks, led by Bhadrabahu, rejected the council’s resolutions and the compiled canon (the 12 Angas), arguing that the original teachings were lost and that the new practices were a deviation from Mahavira’s path. This disagreement solidified the schism.

• Shwetambara (The White-Clad):

  • Liberalism and Attire: This sect is considered more liberal. Monks and nuns wear simple, white, unstitched cloth. This practice is justified by their belief that clothing does not hinder the path to liberation (Kaivalya).
  • View on Women: Shwetambaras hold a progressive view on the spiritual potential of women. They believe that women are capable of achieving Kaivalya in their current birth. They cite Mallinath, the 19th Tirthankara, as evidence, whom they believe was a woman. This is a crucial point of doctrinal difference.
  • Scriptural Authority: They accept the canon compiled at the Pataliputra council, known as the Agama Sutras, as authentic scripture.

• Digambara (The Sky-Clad):

  • Orthodoxy and Attire: This sect is more orthodox and ascetic. Male monks practice complete nudity (digambara) as a symbol of total renunciation of worldly possessions, including clothes. They believe this is essential for liberation as it demonstrates non-attachment (aparigraha).
  • View on Women: Digambaras maintain that women cannot achieve Kaivalya directly. Due to their physical form, they believe women cannot practice the requisite level of asceticism (like nudity) and are inherently subject to passions. They must be reborn as men to attain liberation. Consequently, they hold that Mallinath was a man, not a woman.
  • Scriptural Authority: They reject the Shwetambara Agamas, claiming the original canon was lost. They rely on their own set of texts, such as the Shatkhandagama and Kashayapahuda, which are based on the remembered teachings.

Sub-Sects of Jainism

Over time, both major sects further subdivided due to differences in ritualistic practices and interpretations.

• Digambara Sub-sects:
  • Bispanthi: They worship Tirthankara idols with offerings of flowers, fruits, and sweets (sacchita). They also worship minor deities like Bhairavas.
  • Terapanthi: Founded by Acharya Bhikshu in the 18th century, this reformist sub-sect of the Shwetambara tradition emphasizes adherence to the original teachings and a highly organized monastic order under a single supreme head, the Acharya. (Note: The summary lists ‘Therapanthi’ which is a common misspelling of Terapanthi. It also lists ‘Tarapanthi’ which is a sub-sect of the Digambaras that rejects idol worship).
  • Gumanapanthi: A smaller sub-sect that emphasizes self-study and adherence to scriptural texts.
• Shwetambara Sub-sects:
  • Sthanakvasi: An 18th-century reformist movement founded by Lavaji. They reject idol worship entirely and focus on meditation and scriptural study (Sthanaks or prayer halls are used instead of temples).
  • Murtipujaka (Deravasi): The largest Shwetambara sub-sect, they are staunch believers in idol worship in ornate temples (Derasars).

Metaphysical Thoughts of Jainism

Jain philosophy is characterized by its unique metaphysical and ethical framework.

• Universe: Jainism rejects the concept of a creator god. The universe is considered an uncreated, eternal, and self-subsisting entity that operates according to its own cosmic laws. Its functioning is not dependent on any divine being but on the interplay of its constituent substances (dravyas). This view is supported by the concept of Loka (the occupied universe) and Aloka (the empty space beyond).
• Vedas: Jainism is a nastika (heterodox) school of philosophy as it explicitly rejects the divine authority and infallibility of the Vedas. It criticizes the Vedic rituals, especially animal sacrifices, as they violate the core Jain principle of Ahimsa (non-violence).
• God: While Jainism does not believe in a creator God, it does acknowledge the existence of gods (devas). However, these gods are mortal beings subject to karma and rebirth, just like humans. They reside in heavens but are not liberated souls. The highest state is that of the Tirthankaras, who have achieved liberation (Kaivalya) and are revered as perfect beings, but they do not interfere in the workings of the universe. God is placed below the Jina (Tirthankara).
• Rebirth and Karma: Like other Indian religions, Jainism believes in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). This cycle is driven by karma, which in Jainism is conceptualized as a physical substance—fine particles of matter that attach to the soul (jiva) due to passions like anger, greed, and ego. These karmic particles weigh down the soul and determine its future births. The goal is to stop the influx of new karma (samvara) and shed existing karma (nirjara) to achieve liberation.
• Soul (Jiva and Ajiva): A distinctive feature of Jainism is its belief that consciousness, or soul (jiva), is a universal attribute of all living beings.
  • Jiva (Living Beings): The soul is an eternal and conscious substance. Jains classify living beings based on the number of senses they possess, from one-sensed beings (ekendriya, e.g., plants, stones, water bodies) to five-sensed beings (panchendriya, e.g., humans, animals).
  • Ajiva (Non-Living Matter): This refers to all that is not a soul. The concept that non-living things like stones, rivers, and earth have souls (ekendriya jivas) is a cornerstone of Jain ethics. This belief underpins their practice of extreme Ahimsa, as any action, even unintentional, can harm these one-sensed beings. This explains practices like wearing a mouth-cloth (muhpatti) to avoid inhaling and killing microorganisms and sweeping the ground before walking.

DECLINE OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA

Buddhism, which originated and flourished in India for over a millennium, witnessed a gradual decline, nearly vanishing from its homeland by the 12th century CE. The causes were a complex interplay of internal weaknesses and external pressures.

• Internal Causes:

  • Corruption in the Sangha: The monastic order (Sangha), which was the backbone of Buddhism, began to suffer from corruption. As donations and royal patronage grew, many monks and monasteries accumulated vast wealth. This led to a departure from the ascetic ideals of renunciation and simple living. Accounts from Chinese pilgrims like Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) in the 7th century CE hint at the luxurious lifestyles in some major monasteries.
  • Entry of Women: While a progressive step, the traditional narrative, as recorded in the Pali Canon (Cullavagga), attributes a prophecy to the Buddha that allowing women into the Sangha would reduce the lifespan of the dharma from 1000 to 500 years. While modern scholars like I.B. Horner view this as a later interpolation reflecting patriarchal anxieties, the narrative suggests internal tensions regarding monastic discipline.
  • Sectarianism: The Buddhist community fragmented into numerous sects. The initial split into Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika at the Second Buddhist Council (c. 383 BCE) was followed by the major schism between Hinayana and Mahayana around the Fourth Buddhist Council (c. 1st century CE). The later emergence of Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism) in Eastern India around the 8th century CE, with its esoteric rituals and incorporation of local deities, was seen by some as a significant deviation from original teachings, making it difficult to distinguish from some forms of Tantric Hinduism.
  • Language Shift: Initially, Buddhism used vernacular languages like Pali and Prakrit, which made it accessible to the masses. However, later Buddhist scholars, especially in the Mahayana tradition (e.g., Nagarjuna, Asanga), adopted Sanskrit, the language of the elite and Brahmanical discourse. This linguistic shift alienated the common populace.

• External Causes:

  • Brahmanical Revival and Reforms in Hinduism: The Gupta period (c. 4th-6th centuries CE) marked a strong resurgence of Brahmanical Hinduism. Thinkers like Kumarila Bhatta (7th century CE) and later Adi Shankaracharya (8th-9th centuries CE) actively debated with and refuted Buddhist doctrines, re-establishing the authority of the Vedas. Hinduism reformed itself by discouraging animal sacrifice and promoting the Bhakti movement, which offered a path of personal devotion that appealed to the masses, similar to Buddhist ideals.
  • Assimilation of Buddha: A powerful strategy of co-option was the incorporation of the Buddha into the Hindu pantheon as the ninth incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu. As mentioned in texts like the Puranas, this effectively repositioned Buddhism as a sub-sect of Hinduism rather than a distinct, rival religion, thereby blunting its critical edge.
  • Loss of Royal Patronage: After patrons like Ashoka, Kanishka, and Harsha, Buddhism received less consistent royal support. Dynasties like the Guptas were predominantly Vaishnavites, and later Rajput rulers were staunch patrons of Hinduism. The decline of the Pala dynasty in Bengal and Bihar (c. 12th century CE), the last major patrons of Buddhism, left the large monastic universities vulnerable.
  • Islamic Invasions: The final and most severe blow came from the Turkic invasions from the 12th century onwards. The invaders targeted the large, wealthy, and concentrated monastic centres, which they saw as symbols of idolatry and sources of wealth. The destruction of major Buddhist universities like Nalanda (c. 1193 CE by Bakhtiyar Khilji), Vikramshila, and Odantapuri is well-documented in historical chronicles like the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri by Minhaj-i-Siraj. This destroyed the institutional and intellectual heart of Buddhism in India, leading to the dispersal or death of the monk community.

• Comparison with Jainism: Jainism survived in India while Buddhism largely disappeared. This is partly because Jainism never adopted the same aggressive missionary zeal. It remained a smaller, more insular community, often integrating with the local merchant castes (Vaniyas). Unlike Buddhism, which frontally attacked the caste system, Jainism was less confrontational, allowing it to coexist more harmoniously within the broader Hindu social structure.

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Indian philosophy is broadly classified into two categories based on their acceptance of the authority of the Vedas.

• Astika (Orthodox) Schools: These six schools (Shad-darshanas) accept the divine authority of the Vedas. They are often grouped into three pairs due to their metaphysical similarities:

  1. Samkhya - Yoga
  2. Nyaya - Vaisheshika
  3. Mimamsa - Vedanta They all believe in the concepts of rebirth (punarjanma) and liberation (moksha).

• Nastika (Heterodox) Schools: These schools reject the authority of the Vedas. The primary examples are:

  1. Charvaka (Lokayata): A materialist school.
  2. Buddhism
  3. Jainism
  4. Ajivika

Samkhya

• Founder and Text: Attributed to the sage Kapila Muni. The foundational text is Ishvarakrishna’s Samkhya Karika (c. 350-450 CE). It is considered one of the oldest philosophical systems in India.
• Core Doctrine (Dualism): Samkhya is a radically dualistic (Dvaitavada) philosophy. It posits two ultimate, independent realities:
  • Purusha (Consciousness/Spirit): It is pure consciousness, inactive, unchanging, and multiple (i.e., every living being has a separate Purusha). It is the silent witness.
  • Prakriti (Matter/Nature): It is the unconscious, active, and single primordial matter from which the entire physical universe evolves. It is constituted by three qualities or gunas:
    • Sattva: Purity, light, harmony, and intelligence.
    • Rajas: Activity, passion, and dynamism.
    • Tamas: Inertia, darkness, and heaviness. The universe is created not by a god, but by the interaction between Purusha and Prakriti. The proximity of Purusha disturbs the equilibrium of the gunas in Prakriti, initiating the process of evolution.
• Epistemology (Pramanas): Samkhya holds that liberation (kaivalya) is achieved through real knowledge, which discriminates between Purusha and Prakriti. It accepts three means of valid knowledge (pramanas):
  1. Pratyaksha (Perception): Direct sensory experience.
  2. Anumana (Inference): Knowledge derived from reason.
  3. Shabda (Testimony): Valid verbal testimony, particularly from the Vedas.

Yoga

• Founder and Text: Systematized by Patanjali in his seminal work, the Yogasutra (c. 2nd century BCE - 2nd century CE).
• Relation to Samkhya: Yoga accepts the dualistic metaphysics of Samkhya (Purusha and Prakriti). However, unlike the atheistic early Samkhya, Yoga introduces the concept of Ishvara (a personal God), who is a special Purusha untouched by afflictions and karma. Thus, Yoga is often called “Theistic Samkhya”.
• Core Doctrine (Discipline): Yoga is primarily a practical discipline for the mind and body. Its goal is to achieve the cessation of all mental modifications (chitta vritti nirodha), leading to the isolation of Purusha from Prakriti and thus, liberation (kaivalya).
• Ashtanga Yoga (The Eight Limbs): Patanjali prescribes an eight-fold path to achieve this state:
  1. Yama: Five ethical restraints (non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, non-possessiveness).
  2. Niyama: Five observances (purity, contentment, austerity, self-study, devotion to God).
  3. Asana: Steady and comfortable physical postures.
  4. Pranayama: Control of breath.
  5. Pratyahara: Withdrawal of the senses from external objects.
  6. Dharana: Concentration of the mind on a single object.
  7. Dhyana: Uninterrupted meditation on that object.
  8. Samadhi: A state of super-consciousness where the self merges with the object of meditation, leading to enlightenment.
• Kundalini Jagaran: A concept from later Tantric Yoga traditions, it refers to the awakening of a dormant spiritual energy (Kundalini) located at the base of the spine (Muladhara Chakra). This energy is believed to ascend through a series of six energy centers (chakras) along the spine, culminating in union with universal consciousness at the crown chakra (Sahasrara).

Nyaya

• Founder and Text: Founded by Akshapada Gautama, whose Nyaya Sutras (c. 2nd century CE) are the foundational text.
• Core Doctrine (Logic and Epistemology): The Nyaya school’s primary contribution is its systematic development of logic, epistemology, and methodology. It holds that attaining valid knowledge is the only way to achieve liberation from suffering.
• Epistemology (Pramanas): Nyaya is renowned for its detailed analysis of the means of acquiring knowledge. It accepts four independent pramanas:
  1. Pratyaksha (Perception)
  2. Anumana (Inference)
  3. Upamana (Comparison or Analogy): Gaining knowledge of something by its similarity to another known thing.
  4. Shabda (Testimony): Knowledge from a reliable source (verbal or written).
• Theory of Inference: The Nyaya school developed a formal five-step syllogism for inference (panchavayava-vakya). The classic example is proving the existence of fire on a hill:
  1. The hill has fire (Pratijna - proposition).
  2. Because it has smoke (Hetu - reason).
  3. Whatever has smoke, has fire, e.g., a kitchen (Udaharana - example).
  4. The hill has smoke which is invariably associated with fire (Upanaya - application).
  5. Therefore, the hill has fire (Nigamana - conclusion).

Vaisheshika

• Founder and Text: Founded by Kanada (also known as Uluka), whose Vaisheshika Sutras (c. 2nd century BCE) are the core text.
• Core Doctrine (Atomism): The Vaisheshika school is a pluralistic realism that presents an atomic theory of the universe (Paramanuvada).
  • It posits that all physical objects in the universe are aggregates of eternal, indivisible, and indestructible atoms (paramanu).
  • There are four types of atoms: Earth (prithvi), Water (jala), Fire (tejas), and Air (vayu). The fifth substance, Ether (akasha), is not atomic.
  • These atoms are inherently inactive but are set into motion by an unseen force (adrishta), often interpreted as the will of God, to combine and form objects. This school marked an early inquiry into physics in India.
• Doctrine of Categories (Padarthas): It analyzes reality into seven categories: substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma), generality (samanya), particularity (vishesha - from which the school gets its name), inherence (samavaya), and non-existence (abhava). Understanding these categories through valid knowledge is the path to salvation.
• Relation to Nyaya: Vaisheshika focuses on metaphysics (ontology), while Nyaya focuses on logic (epistemology). Over time, the two schools merged due to their shared realist worldview, forming the Nyaya-Vaisheshika school.

Prelims Pointers

• Jain Councils:
  • 1st Council: Held at Pataliputra (c. 300 BCE) under the chairmanship of Sthulabhadra. Led to the compilation of the 12 Angas.
  • 2nd Council: Held at Valabhi (Gujarat) in the 5th or 6th century CE under the chairmanship of Devaradhi Kshamasramana. Final compilation of the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.
• Tirthankaras:
  • First Tirthankara: Rishabhanatha (Adinatha).
  • 19th Tirthankara: Mallinath (believed to be a woman by Shwetambaras).
  • 23rd Tirthankara: Parshvanatha.
  • 24th Tirthankara: Mahavira (Vardhamana).
• Jain Sects:
  • Shwetambara: “White-clad”; liberal; believe women can attain Kaivalya; follow the Agamas compiled at Pataliputra.
  • Digambara: “Sky-clad”; orthodox; male monks are nude; believe women must be reborn as men for Kaivalya; reject the Agamas of Pataliputra.
• Jain Metaphysics:
  • Rejects a creator God. Universe operates on universal law.
  • Rejects the authority of Vedas (Nastika school).
  • Believes in souls (Jiva) in both living and what is considered non-living (e.g., water, stone).
  • Karma is a physical substance that clings to the soul.
• Decline of Buddhism:
  • Language Shift: From Pali/Prakrit to Sanskrit.
  • Hindu Assimilation: Buddha declared the 9th avatar of Vishnu in Puranic texts.
  • Patronage Loss: Decline of patrons like the Palas of Bengal.
  • Invasions: Destruction of monasteries like Nalanda and Vikramshila by Bakhtiyar Khilji (c. 1193 CE).
• Indian Philosophy (Orthodox/Astika):
  1. Samkhya: Founder - Kapila Muni. Dualistic (Purusha & Prakriti).
  2. Yoga: Founder - Patanjali. Text - Yogasutra. Accepts Samkhya metaphysics plus Ishvara (God).
  3. Nyaya: Founder - Akshapada Gautama. Focuses on logic and epistemology. Four Pramanas.
  4. Vaisheshika: Founder - Kanada (Uluka). Atomic theory (Paramanuvada).
  5. Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa): Founder - Jaimini. Focuses on the ritualistic part of Vedas.
  6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa): Focuses on the philosophical part of Vedas (Upanishads).
• Philosophical Terminology:
  • Astika: Believes in the authority of Vedas.
  • Nastika: Does not believe in the authority of Vedas.
  • Pramanas: Means of valid knowledge.
  • Kaivalya: Liberation in Jainism.
  • Nirvana: Liberation in Buddhism.
  • Moksha: Liberation in Hinduism.
  • Dvaitavada: Dualism (e.g., Samkhya).

Mains Insights

• Socio-Religious Impact of Jainism vs. Buddhism

  • Cause-Effect: Jainism’s doctrine of extreme Ahimsa restricted its followers from professions like agriculture, pushing them towards trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of the Jain community but limited its mass appeal. Buddhism’s ‘Middle Path’ (Madhyama Marg) was more adaptable and attracted a wider cross-section of society, including royalty and commoners.
  • Debate: Why did Jainism survive in India while Buddhism declined? One viewpoint is that Jainism’s less confrontational stance on the caste system and its integration into the mercantile fabric of Hindu society allowed for its survival. In contrast, Buddhism’s strong missionary zeal and creation of a powerful, centralized monastic order made it a visible target for both Brahmanical opposition and foreign invaders.

• Philosophical Syncretism and Rivalry

  • Historiographical Viewpoint: Historians like A.L. Basham argue that the relationship between these religious and philosophical systems was not just one of rivalry but also of mutual influence. The rise of Bhakti in Hinduism and the concept of ahimsa gaining prominence can be seen as a response to the challenges posed by Buddhism and Jainism.
  • Analytical Perspective: The assimilation of Buddha as a Vishnu avatar is a classic example of “inclusive” hegemonic strategy. By absorbing the figurehead of a rival religion, Brahmanism could neutralize its ideological challenge without direct persecution, a subtle process that ultimately contributed to Buddhism’s decline in India.

• Rationalism in Ancient Indian Thought

  • Contribution to Science and Logic: The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools represent a strong tradition of rationalism and scientific inquiry in ancient India. Nyaya’s development of a formal system of logic is comparable to Aristotelian logic. Vaisheshika’s atomic theory, though metaphysical, represents an early attempt to understand the fundamental constituents of matter. This challenges the colonial-era stereotype of Indian thought as being purely mystical or world-denying.
  • GS Paper IV (Ethics): The principles of Ashtanga Yoga, particularly Yama (non-violence, truthfulness) and Niyama (purity, contentment), offer a comprehensive ethical framework for personal and public conduct. These can be cited as sources of ethical guidance for civil servants, promoting integrity, self-discipline, and compassion.

• Decline of Buddhism: A Multi-Causal Analysis

  • It is crucial to avoid a monocausal explanation. The decline was a protracted process involving internal decay and external shocks.
  1. Internal Decay (Structural Weakness): Corruption in the Sangha, schisms, and alienation from the masses due to language shift.
  2. Ideological Challenge (Brahmanical Resurgence): Philosophical refutation by scholars like Shankaracharya and co-option through the avatar theory.
  3. Loss of State Support (Political Shift): The decline of pro-Buddhist dynasties and the rise of pro-Hindu rulers.
  4. External Shock (Invasions): The destruction of monastic centers, which were the institutional foundation of Buddhism, delivered the final blow. This multi-layered analysis provides a more nuanced understanding than blaming a single factor.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)

   1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.
   2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but exist forever in a latent form. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

   Answer: (b) Sautrantika, Sammitiya, and Sarvastivadin were all sects of Buddhism, not Jainism. Statement 2 is a correct description of the Sarvastivadin school’s doctrine.

2. Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jain doctrine? (UPSC 2013)

   1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance.
   2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
   3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (d) All three statements accurately reflect core Jain doctrines. Penance (tapas) is crucial for nirjara (shedding karma). The concept of Jiva in all objects is central to Jainism. And liberation is achieved by freeing the soul from karmic particles.

3. With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world? (UPSC 2018) (a) Avalokiteshvara (b) Lokesvara (c) Maitreya (d) Padmapani

   Answer: (c) In Buddhist tradition, Maitreya is the future Buddha, a bodhisattva who will appear on Earth in the future, achieve complete enlightenment, and teach the pure dharma.

4. The concept of ‘Bodhisattva’ is associated with (UPSC 2016) (a) Mahayana Buddhism (b) Hinayana Buddhism (c) Jainism (d) Theravada Buddhism

   Answer: (a) The Bodhisattva ideal, an enlightened being who delays their own nirvana to help all sentient beings achieve enlightenment, is a central tenet of Mahayana Buddhism.

5. Which one of the following is not a part of the ‘eight-fold path’ of Yoga? (Based on the syllabus) (a) Pratyahara (b) Anumana (c) Dhyana (d) Yama

   Answer: (b) Anumana (inference) is a pramana (means of knowledge) in schools like Samkhya and Nyaya. The eight limbs of Yoga are Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi.

Mains

1. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. (UPSC 2016)

   Answer: The art on early stupas like Sanchi and Bharhut masterfully integrated popular, pre-Buddhist folk traditions with core Buddhist teachings.

   • Folk Motifs: Yakshas, Yakshis, Nagas, and various nature spirits were depicted as worshippers or guardians of the stupa. This incorporated existing folk beliefs into the Buddhist fold, making the religion more accessible and relatable to the common people. For instance, the Shalabhanjika (woman and tree) motif represents fertility and auspiciousness.
   • Narrative Art (Jataka Tales): The railings and gateways (toranas) are covered with narrative panels depicting Jataka tales (stories of Buddha’s previous lives). These stories used animal and human characters to teach moral values like compassion, self-sacrifice, and wisdom in a simple, story-telling format.
   • Expounding Buddhist Ideals: Instead of depicting the Buddha in human form (aniconic tradition), his presence was indicated through symbols like the Bodhi tree (enlightenment), a wheel (first sermon), footprints, or an empty throne. This emphasized the abstract concept of dharma and the path to enlightenment over personal worship. Thus, by using familiar visual language, Stupa art became an effective medium for communicating complex Buddhist ideals to a largely illiterate populace.

2. Discuss the contributions of the Patanjali’s Yoga to the Indian philosophical tradition. (Based on syllabus)

   Answer: Patanjali’s Yogasutras made a profound contribution to Indian philosophy by providing a practical, systematic pathway for achieving the philosophical goal of liberation (moksha/kaivalya).

   • Theistic Bridge to Samkhya: Yoga accepted the rigorous dualistic metaphysics of the Samkhya school (Purusha and Prakriti) but made it more accessible by introducing the concept of Ishvara (God). This provided a focal point for devotion and meditation, bridging the gap between an abstract philosophical system and a practical spiritual discipline.
   • Systematization of Mind Control: Yoga’s primary contribution was its systematic analysis of the mind and consciousness. It defined yoga as “chitta vritti nirodha” (the cessation of the modifications of the mind) and laid out the Ashtanga Yoga (eight-fold path) as a clear, step-by-step methodology to achieve this. This was a unique contribution, focusing on empirical practice rather than just theoretical speculation.
   • Ethical Foundation: The first two limbs, Yama (ethical restraints) and Niyama (observances), provided a strong ethical foundation for spiritual practice. Principles like Ahimsa (non-violence) and Satya (truthfulness) became integral to the pursuit of higher consciousness, influencing Indian ethics across different traditions.
   • Holistic Approach: Yoga integrated the physical (Asana, Pranayama), mental (Dharana, Dhyana), and ethical (Yama, Niyama) dimensions of human existence, presenting a holistic path to self-realization that has had an enduring impact on Indian culture and global wellness practices.

3. The philosophy of Samkhya forms the theoretical basis for the practical discipline of Yoga. Explain.

   Answer: The relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is deeply symbiotic, often described with the analogy that Samkhya provides the ‘what’ (the theory) and Yoga provides the ‘how’ (the practice).

   • Shared Metaphysics: Yoga fully adopts Samkhya’s metaphysical framework. It accepts the fundamental dualism of Purusha (pure consciousness) and Prakriti (primordial matter). The goal in both systems is Kaivalya—the liberation of Purusha from its entanglement with Prakriti. Yoga does not propound its own cosmology or ontology; it directly builds upon the Samkhya analysis of the evolution of the universe from Prakriti and its three gunas.
   • Shared Goal: Both philosophies identify ignorance (avidya)—the failure to discriminate between Purusha and Prakriti—as the root cause of suffering. The ultimate aim is to dispel this ignorance and achieve the isolation of consciousness from matter.
   • Yoga as Practical Application: While Samkhya posits that liberation is achieved through pure knowledge (jnana) of this distinction, it does not lay out a detailed practical method. Yoga fills this gap by providing the Ashtanga Yoga, a structured eight-step discipline of ethical conduct, physical postures, breath control, and meditation. This path is explicitly designed to quiet the mind and create the inner stillness necessary to realize the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti that Samkhya describes theoretically.
   • Theistic Addition: The only significant addition Yoga makes is the concept of Ishvara. This addition, however, serves a practical purpose within the shared framework—devotion to Ishvara is presented as one of the effective means to attain the concentration needed for Samadhi, the final stage of the Yogic path to liberation.

4. Analyze the factors that led to the decline of Buddhism in the land of its birth. How did its legacy continue to influence India?

   Answer: The decline of Buddhism in India was a multifaceted process resulting from a confluence of internal weaknesses and external pressures over several centuries.

   • Factors for Decline:
     1. Internal Decay: The Buddhist Sangha, once a beacon of asceticism, faced issues of corruption and luxurious living as it amassed wealth. Schisms and sectarian divisions (e.g., Mahayana, Hinayana, Vajrayana) diluted its doctrinal unity. The shift from the commoner’s language, Pali, to the elite language, Sanskrit, distanced it from the masses.
     2. Brahmanical Revival: From the Gupta period onwards, Hinduism underwent a powerful resurgence. Philosophers like Adi Shankaracharya challenged Buddhist doctrines, while the Bhakti movement offered an emotional and accessible path to salvation that rivaled Buddhism’s appeal.
     3. Syncretism and Co-option: Hinduism strategically assimilated Buddhist elements. The Buddha was incorporated into the Hindu pantheon as the ninth avatar of Vishnu, effectively reducing Buddhism to a sect within Hinduism and blunting its distinct identity.
     4. Loss of Royal Patronage: After the patronage of kings like Harsha, Buddhism found fewer powerful patrons. Later dynasties like the Rajputs and Guptas predominantly supported Hinduism, leading to a loss of resources and prestige for Buddhist institutions.
     5. Turkic Invasions: The final blow was dealt by the invasions starting in the 12th century. The destruction of major monastic universities like Nalanda and Vikramshila by invaders like Bakhtiyar Khilji obliterated the intellectual and institutional centers of Buddhism.
   • Enduring Legacy: Despite its decline as an organized religion, Buddhism left an indelible mark on India:
     1. Art and Architecture: The concepts of stupas, viharas, and chaitya halls became staples of Indian architecture. The art of Ajanta, Ellora, and the Gandhara and Mathura schools are timeless contributions.
     2. Promotion of Non-Violence (Ahimsa): The Buddhist emphasis on ahimsa had a profound impact on Indian ethics, contributing to the rise of vegetarianism and the general sanctity of life in Indian society.
     3. Logic and Philosophy: Thinkers like Nagarjuna (propounder of Shunyata) and Dignaga (logician) deeply influenced the course of Indian philosophy, engaging in vigorous debates that enriched all philosophical schools.
     4. Modern Influence: In the 20th century, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar led a revival of Buddhism (Navayana Buddhism) as a means of social and spiritual liberation from the caste system, giving it a new, potent identity in modern India.

5. How does the Vaisheshika school’s atomic theory differ from modern atomic theory? Discuss its significance in the history of Indian science.

   Answer: The Vaisheshika school’s atomic theory (Paramanuvada), founded by Kanada, is a pioneering philosophical concept that, while sharing the basic idea of atomism with modern science, differs significantly in its nature, scope, and methodology.

   • Differences from Modern Atomic Theory:
     1. Basis of Theory: Vaisheshika atomism is a product of logical inference and metaphysical speculation, aimed at explaining the nature of reality to achieve liberation. Modern atomic theory is based on empirical evidence, experimentation (like Rutherford’s gold foil experiment), and mathematical models.
     2. Nature of Atoms: Vaisheshika posits four types of eternal and indivisible atoms corresponding to the classical elements: earth, water, fire, and air. They are qualitatively different. In modern science, atoms are divisible into subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons), and there are over a hundred types of elements (defined by the number of protons), which are qualitatively the same in their basic components.
     3. Cause of Combination: In Vaisheshika, atoms are put into motion and combination by an external, unseen force (adrishta), often linked to God’s will. In modern science, atoms combine based on electrochemical forces, valency, and the laws of quantum mechanics.
     4. Scope: Vaisheshika theory is part of a larger soteriological project—understanding the ultimate constituents of reality to attain moksha. Modern atomic theory is a scientific model to explain physical and chemical phenomena, with technological applications.
   • Significance in Indian Science: Despite these differences, the Vaisheshika school’s contribution was monumental for its time.
     1. Fostering Rational Inquiry: It marked a significant shift from purely mythological or ritualistic explanations of the universe to a rational, analytical framework. It encouraged inquiry into the fundamental nature of the physical world, laying the groundwork for a scientific temperament.
     2. Early Physics and Ontology: It was one of the earliest systematic attempts in India to classify the objects of experience into fundamental categories (padarthas) and explain physical change through the combination and separation of atoms. This represents the beginning of physics and ontology in the Indian subcontinent.
     3. Influence on Other Schools: Its realism and analytical method deeply influenced the Nyaya school of logic and other philosophical systems, promoting a culture of rigorous debate and systematic thought that characterized the intellectual landscape of ancient India. While not “scientific” in the modern sense, Vaisheshika atomism was a remarkable intellectual achievement that demonstrated a deep-seated thirst for understanding the material basis of the universe.