GS Notes

1.1 - Art and Culture Notes 10

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Elaborate Notes

MIMANSA PHILOSOPHY

  • Etymology and Classification: The term ‘Mimansa’ means reflection, inquiry, or investigation. It is classified as Purva Mimansa (“Prior Inquiry”) because its primary focus is on the earlier sections of the Vedas, specifically the Samhitas and Brahmanas, which deal with rituals (Karma-kanda). This distinguishes it from Vedanta, which is called Uttara Mimansa (“Later Inquiry”) as it focuses on the Upanishads, the later part of the Vedas dealing with knowledge (Jnana-kanda).
  • Founder and Foundational Text: The foundational text of this school is the Mimamsa Sutra, authored by the sage Jaimini (c. 3rd-1st century BCE). This text is aphoristic and required elaborate commentaries by later scholars to be fully understood.
  • Core Tenets:
    • Vedic Authority: Mimansa upholds the absolute, eternal, and infallible authority of the Vedas. It argues that the Vedas are apaurusheya (not of human origin) and are self-validating sources of knowledge about dharma.
    • Dharma as Ritual: The central concern of Mimansa is dharma, which it defines as the performance of duties and rituals (like yajnas or sacrifices) as prescribed in the Vedas. Correctly performing these rituals is believed to produce an unseen potency or merit (apurva), which yields its fruit (e.g., heaven) in the future.
    • Path to Salvation: The primary goal is not moksha (liberation) in the Vedantic sense, but the attainment of svarga (heaven), a temporary state of bliss achieved through the accumulation of merit from good deeds and rituals. Later Mimansakas, like Kumarila Bhatta (c. 7th century CE) and Prabhakara Mishra (c. 7th-8th century CE), did incorporate the concept of moksha, defining it as the cessation of the cycle of birth and death, achievable by exhausting all accumulated karma through desire-less action.
    • Role of the Priestly Class: Since the accurate performance of complex Vedic rituals is paramount, the philosophy inherently emphasizes the indispensable role of the Brahmin priestly class, who are the custodians of this ritualistic knowledge.

VEDANTA PHILOSOPHY

  • Etymology and Foundation: ‘Vedanta’ literally means “the end of the Vedas” (Veda + anta), referring to the Upanishads which appear at the end of the Vedic corpus. It is also known as Uttara Mimansa. The foundational text for all Vedanta schools is the Brahma Sutras (also known as Vedanta Sutras) compiled by Badarayana (c. 400-200 BCE). This text systematizes the teachings of the Upanishads in a series of concise aphorisms, leading to diverse interpretations by later philosophers.
  • Mimansa and Vedanta as a Pair (Yugm): These two schools form a complementary pair within Hindu orthodoxy. Mimansa establishes the validity of the ritualistic part (Karma-kanda), while Vedanta explores the philosophical part (Jnana-kanda). Mimansa deals with the ‘how’ (rituals), and Vedanta deals with the ‘why’ (ultimate reality).

a) Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism)

  • Proponent: The most prominent exponent of Advaita was Adi Shankaracharya (c. 788-820 CE), a philosopher-saint from Kalady, Kerala. He traveled extensively across India, engaging in debates and establishing four major monastic centers (mathas) at Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, and Jyotirmath (Badrinath) to propagate his philosophy.
  • Core Philosophy:
    • Brahman as the Sole Reality: The central tenet is that Brahman (the Ultimate Reality) is the only existing reality. The phenomenal world (jagat) is ultimately an illusion (mithya).
    • Identity of Atman and Brahman: The individual soul (Atman) is not different from Brahman. The apparent separation is due to avidya (ignorance) or Maya (cosmic illusion).
    • Path to Liberation: Liberation (moksha) is achieved not through rituals or devotion alone, but through Jnana Marga (the Path of Knowledge)—the direct realization of one’s identity with Brahman.
    • Mahavakyas: Shankaracharya emphasized the “Great Sayings” of the Upanishads, such as “Aham Brahmasmi” (I am Brahman) from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, and “Tat Tvam Asi” (That Thou Art) from the Chandogya Upanishad.
    • Analogy of the Rope and the Snake: This classic analogy illustrates Maya. In dim light, a person mistakes a coiled rope for a snake. The fear and reaction are real for the perceiver, but the snake itself is non-existent. The ‘snake’ is the perceived world of multiplicity, and the ‘rope’ is the underlying reality of Brahman. When light (knowledge) dawns, the illusion of the snake vanishes, and only the rope remains.

b) Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (Qualified Non-dualism)

  • Proponent: This school was systematically expounded by Ramanujacharya (c. 1017-1137 CE), a philosopher-saint born in Sriperumbudur and based in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu. His teachings provided a strong philosophical foundation for the burgeoning Bhakti movement.
  • Core Philosophy:
    • Qualified Reality: Ramanuja posits that Brahman (identified with a personal God, Vishnu) is the supreme reality, but the individual souls (chit) and the material world (achit) are also real. They are not illusions but are inseparable attributes or modes of Brahman, just as qualities like ‘whiteness’ are inseparable from a ‘white cloth’. Thus, reality is one, but it is qualified by multiplicity.
    • Path to Liberation: The primary means to attain salvation is Bhakti Marga (the Path of Devotion). Through intense devotion, self-surrender (prapatti), and divine grace, the soul can attain the abode of God and enjoy eternal bliss in His presence, while retaining its individual identity. This contrasts with Shankara’s idea of the soul merging completely into Brahman.

HETERODOX PHILOSOPHY

CARVAKA PHILOSOPHY

  • Etymology and Origin: Also known as Lokayata, meaning “that which is prevalent among the people” (lokeshu ayata). This school is attributed to a sage named Brihaspati, but no original texts have survived. Our knowledge of it comes primarily from critiques in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu philosophical texts.
  • Core Tenets:
    • Materialism: It is a staunchly materialistic and atheistic school. It posits that matter (composed of four elements: earth, water, fire, air) is the only reality. Consciousness is seen as an emergent property of the combination of these elements in the body, which ceases to exist upon death.
    • Epistemology: It accepts only direct perception (Pratyaksha) as the valid means of knowledge (pramana). It rejects inference (anumana) and testimony (shabda, including the Vedas) as unreliable. The phrase “Pratyaksham kim Pramanam” (“What need is there for proof for something that is directly perceived?”) captures this stance.
    • Rejection of Metaphysics: Consequently, it denies the existence of God, soul (atman), afterlife, rebirth, karma, and salvation (moksha).
    • Ethical Hedonism: The school advocates for maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain in this life, as it is the only life one has. The famous verse “Yavat jivet sukham jivet, Rinam kritva ghritam pibet, Bhasmibhutasya dehasya punaragamanam kutah” encapsulates this view: “As long as you live, live happily; take a loan and drink ghee. For once the body is reduced to ashes, how can it return?”

AJIVIKA

  • Founder and Context: Founded by Makkhali Gosala (c. 5th century BCE), a contemporary of both Gautama Buddha and Mahavira. Jain texts, such as the Bhagavati Sutra, state that Gosala was a disciple of Mahavira for six years before a bitter parting of ways.
  • Core Tenets:
    • Absolute Determinism (Niyativada): The central doctrine is Niyati (fate or destiny). Ajivikas believed that everything in the universe—every action, every event, every being’s life—is unalterably pre-determined. There is no free will or human effort that can change the course of events.
    • Rejection of Karma: They rejected the concept of karma as a moral law of cause and effect. Actions, whether good or bad, have no bearing on one’s future, as the future is already fixed.
    • Concept of Liberation: The soul undergoes a vast, fixed cycle of transmigration through millions of rebirths. Liberation is not something to be achieved through effort but occurs automatically when this cosmic cycle is completed.
  • Historical Presence: The Ajivika school was a major philosophical rival to Buddhism and Jainism for several centuries. It received patronage from Mauryan emperor Bindusara (father of Ashoka). The Barabar Caves in Bihar, with their polished interiors, contain inscriptions by Ashoka dedicating some of the caves for the use of Ajivika ascetics, providing significant archaeological evidence of their prominence. The school eventually declined and disappeared by the 14th century CE.

PARSI RELIGION / ZOROASTRIANISM

  • Origin and Founder: One of the world’s oldest continuously practiced religions, founded by the Prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster in Greek) in ancient Iran (Persia). His dates are debated, but scholars place him roughly between 1500 and 600 BCE.
  • Migration to India: Zoroastrians fled Persia following the Arab-Islamic conquest in the 7th century CE to escape religious persecution. They landed on the coast of Gujarat, at a place named Sanjan, and were granted refuge by the local Hindu king, Jadhav Rana. In India, they came to be known as Parsis (from ‘Persia’).
  • Theology and Beliefs:
    • God: Belief in one supreme, universal, and uncreated God, Ahura Mazda (“Wise Lord”).
    • Cosmic Dualism: A central feature is the cosmic struggle between two opposing forces: Spenta Mainyu (the benevolent, life-giving spirit) and Angra Mainyu (the malevolent, destructive spirit, also known as Ahriman). The universe is a battleground for these forces, and human beings have free will to choose between the path of good (Asha) and the path of evil (Druj).
    • Role of Fire: Fire (Atar) is the sacred symbol of Ahura Mazda’s purity, light, and truth. It is the focal point of worship in their temples, known as Atash Behram (“Fire of Victory”). Parsis do not worship fire itself but see it as a physical representation of the divine.
  • Sacred Text: The holy scripture is the Zend Avesta. The oldest part of it, the Gathas, are hymns believed to have been composed by Zarathustra himself.
  • After-Death Rituals: Traditionally, Parsis practice excarnation. The dead body is considered impure and must not contaminate the sacred elements of earth, water, or fire. The corpse is laid out in a Dakhma, or “Tower of Silence,” a circular stone structure open to the sky, where it is consumed by birds of prey like vultures. This practice is facing challenges in modern times due to the drastic decline in vulture populations and urbanization.

INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCE

Origin of Dance forms in India

  • Natyashastra: The foundational treatise for all Indian performing arts is the Natyashastra, attributed to the sage Bharata Muni. Its composition is dated between 200 BCE and 200 CE. It is a comprehensive work on dramaturgy, dance, and music, often referred to as the “Fifth Veda” or Natya Veda.
  • Mythological Origin: According to the Natyashastra, Lord Brahma created the Natya Veda at the request of the gods for a form of entertainment accessible to all varnas. He instructed Bharata Muni to synthesize elements from the four existing Vedas:
    • Pathya (Words/Text) from the Rigveda.
    • Abhinaya (Gestures/Expression) from the Yajurveda.
    • Geet (Music/Song) from the Samaveda.
    • Rasa (Emotions/Aesthetics) from the Atharvaveda.

Two Aspects of Dance

  • Tandava: This is the vigorous, masculine aspect of dance. It is characterized by forceful, energetic, and rapid movements. It is mythologically associated with the cosmic dance of Lord Shiva.
    • Ananda Tandava: The dance of creation and bliss.
    • Rudra Tandava or Bhairava Tandava: The dance of destruction, performed by Shiva in his fierce form.
    • Other Examples: Lord Krishna’s dance to subdue the serpent Kaliya (Kaliya Mardan) is also a form of Tandava.
  • Lasya: This is the gentle, graceful, and lyrical feminine aspect of dance. It is characterized by soft, fluid movements and expressive abhinaya. It is mythologically attributed to Goddess Parvati, who is said to have performed it in response to Shiva’s Tandava.

Three Elements of Dance

  • Nritta: Abstract or pure dance. It consists of rhythmic and graceful body movements that do not convey any specific meaning or narrative. The focus is on the beauty of form, rhythm, and speed.
  • Natya: The dramatic aspect of dance, involving storytelling through gestures, expressions, and mime. It is essentially dance-drama.
  • Nritya: A combination of Nritta and Natya. It involves expressive dance that uses gestures and facial expressions to convey the meaning of a song or a narrative, while also incorporating pure dance movements.
  • While Bharata’s Natyashastra primarily outlines eight rasas, Nandikeshvara in his text “Abhinayadarpana” (c. 2nd-5th century CE) is credited with elaborating on the use of emotions, and later traditions solidified the concept of the Navarasas (nine emotions) by adding Shanta Rasa.
    1. Sringara (Love/Erotic)
    2. Hasya (Laughter/Comic)
    3. Karunya (Compassion/Pathetic)
    4. Raudra (Anger/Fury)
    5. Vira (Heroism/Courage)
    6. Bhayana (Fear/Terror)
    7. Bibhatsa (Disgust/Odious)
    8. Adbhuta (Wonder/Amazement)
    9. Shanta (Peace/Tranquility)

BHARATNATYAM

  • Origin and Etymology: The oldest of India’s classical dance forms, with origins in the temple traditions of Tamil Nadu. The name is derived from Bhava (expression), Raga (melody), and Tala (rhythm), and also honors the sage Bharata Muni. It evolved from the dance form known as Sadir Attam or Dasi Attam, performed by Devadasis.
  • The Devadasi System: Historically, Devadasis were women ‘married’ to the deity of a temple, dedicating their lives to its service, which included performing dance and music as sacred rituals. Over centuries, particularly during the colonial period, the system degenerated, and the art form fell into disrepute.
  • Modern Revival:
    • E. Krishna Iyer, a lawyer and freedom fighter, championed the cause of Sadir Attam in the early 20th century, performing it on stage himself (in female attire) to remove the stigma associated with it and coined the term “Bharatanatyam.”
    • Rukmini Devi Arundale (1904-1986) played a pivotal role in its renaissance. She brought the dance form out of the temples and onto the proscenium stage, systematized its training, and founded the Kalakshetra Foundation in Chennai in 1936, an institution that became a beacon for its preservation and propagation.
  • Features:
    • Performance Sequence (Margam): A Bharatanatyam recital follows a fixed sequence:
      1. Alarippu: An invocation, literally “flowering bud,” involving simple rhythmic movements of the neck, shoulders, and arms to seek blessings.
      2. Jatiswaram: A short, pure dance (Nritta) piece where the dancer synchronizes movements with musical notes (swaras) of a raga.
      3. Shabdam: The introduction of expressive dance (Abhinaya), usually a short poem in praise of a deity.
      4. Varnam: The centerpiece of the recital, a complex and long piece that combines intricate Nritta and expressive Nritya.
      5. Padam: A purely expressive piece focusing on mastery of Abhinaya, often depicting different shades of love.
      6. Jawali: A faster-paced piece with a lighter, more romantic theme.
      7. Thillana: The concluding piece, a vibrant and joyous display of pure dance with complex rhythms and sculptural poses.
    • Physical Characteristics: It is often called the “Fire Dance,” as its movements are said to mimic the flickering of a flame. The dance is characterized by the Araimandi (half-sitting) posture, linear geometric patterns, and strong, defined movements.
    • Hand Gestures (Mudras): Kataka Mukha Hasta is a prominent mudra, where the tips of the index finger and thumb touch the middle finger, symbolizing ‘Om’ or holding flowers.
    • Solo Performance: The tradition of a single dancer performing multiple roles is known as Ek Charya Lasyam.
    • Musical Ensemble: The performance is accompanied by Carnatic classical music. The conductor of the recital, who chants the rhythmic syllables (sollukattus) and plays the cymbals (talam), is the Nattuvanar.
  • Famous Exponents: Yamini Krishnamurti, Padma Subrahmanyam, Mrinalini Sarabhai, Mallika Sarabhai, Balasaraswati.

KUCHIPUDI

  • Origin: This dance form originated in the village of Kuchelapuram (or Kuselavapuri) in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh.
  • Historical Development: It began as a group performance tradition known as Bhagavatamela, performed by troupes of male Brahmin actors who traveled from village to village. The themes were primarily drawn from the Bhagavata Purana.
  • Key Figure: The 14th-15th century Vaishnava saint and visionary Siddhendra Yogi is credited with refining and systematizing the Kuchipudi dance-drama tradition. He is believed to have composed the famous dance-drama Bhamakalapam, centered on the character of Satyabhama.
  • Patronage: The dance form flourished under the patronage of the Vijayanagara emperors and later the Golkonda rulers, notably Nawab Abul Hasan Tanisha in the 17th century.
  • Modern Revival: In the 20th century, the form was revived and brought to the solo stage by pioneers like Vempati Chinna Satyam, who refined its technique and expanded its repertoire. Ragini Devi and Bala Saraswati also contributed significantly to its recognition beyond Andhra Pradesh.

Prelims Pointers

  • Mimansa: Also called Purva Mimansa; founded by Jaimini; emphasizes Vedic rituals (Karma-kanda) for attaining heaven (svarga).
  • Vedanta: Also called Uttara Mimansa; based on Upanishads (Jnana-kanda); foundational text is Brahma Sutras by Badarayana.
  • Advaita Vedanta: Propounded by Adi Shankaracharya (8th Century CE); concept of non-dualism (Brahman is the only reality); Path of Knowledge (Jnana Marga); Key term: Maya.
  • Vishishtadvaita Vedanta: Propounded by Ramanujacharya (11th Century CE); concept of qualified non-dualism; Path of Devotion (Bhakti Marga).
  • Carvaka/Lokayata: Materialistic philosophy; accepts only perception (Pratyaksha) as proof; denies God, soul, and afterlife.
  • Ajivika: Founded by Makkhali Gosala; doctrine of absolute fatalism (Niyativada); patronized by Mauryan king Bindusara; Barabar Caves were used by them.
  • Zoroastrianism (Parsi): Founded by Prophet Zarathustra in ancient Iran; supreme God is Ahura Mazda; sacred text is Zend Avesta; cosmic dualism of Spenta Mainyu (good) and Angra Mainyu (evil).
  • Parsi Rituals: Fire temples are called Atash Behram; funeral custom involves leaving the dead in “Towers of Silence” (Dakhma).
  • Natyashastra: Foundational text for Indian performing arts, by Bharata Muni; called the “Fifth Veda”.
  • Elements from Vedas: Pathya (Rigveda), Abhinaya (Yajurveda), Geet (Samaveda), Rasa (Atharvaveda).
  • Dance Aspects: Tandava (masculine, Shiva) and Lasya (feminine, Parvati).
  • Dance Elements: Nritta (pure dance), Natya (drama), Nritya (expression + dance).
  • Navarasas: The nine emotions used in Indian arts (Sringara, Hasya, Vira, etc.).
  • Bharatanatyam: Oldest classical dance, from Tamil Nadu; originated from Sadir Attam of Devadasis; revived by E. Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale.
  • Bharatanatyam Features: Called “Fire Dance”; characterized by Araimandi posture; performance sequence is called Margam (Alarippu, Jatiswaram, Varnam, Thillana, etc.); uses Carnatic music; conductor is the Nattuvanar.
  • Kuchipudi: Classical dance from Andhra Pradesh (village of Kuchelapuram); refined by Siddhendra Yogi; originated as a male group performance (Bhagavatamela).

Mains Insights

  1. The Shankaracharya-Ramanuja Debate: Jnana vs. Bhakti and its Socio-Cultural Impact

    • Philosophical Divergence: The debate between Shankara’s Advaita (knowledge-centric, impersonal Brahman) and Ramanuja’s Vishishtadvaita (devotion-centric, personal God) represents a major intellectual and spiritual crossroads in Indian history.
    • Cause-Effect: Shankara’s rigorous intellectualism helped revive and consolidate Hinduism against the challenges from Buddhism and Jainism. However, its abstract nature made it inaccessible to the masses. Ramanuja’s philosophy provided a robust intellectual framework for the Bhakti movement, making religion personal, emotional, and accessible to all, irrespective of caste or creed. This directly fueled the pan-Indian Bhakti movements from the 12th century onwards.
    • Historiographical View: Some historians view this not just as a philosophical debate but as a social one. Shankara’s path, requiring scriptural study, was seen as more exclusive, while Ramanuja’s emphasis on devotion and grace was more egalitarian, challenging rigid caste hierarchies.

  2. Indian Philosophical Traditions: A Spectrum of Thought from Materialism to Metaphysics

    • Diversity: The coexistence of orthodox schools like Mimansa and Vedanta with heterodox schools like Carvaka and Ajivika highlights the profound intellectual dynamism and tolerance within ancient Indian society.
    • Relevance: These ancient debates continue to resonate. Carvaka’s materialism finds echoes in modern consumerism and scientific rationalism. Ajivika’s fatalism raises timeless questions about free will versus determinism. Vedanta’s quest for ultimate reality influences modern spiritual movements and thinkers globally (e.g., Vivekananda’s influence in the West). An understanding of these schools is crucial for appreciating the depth and plurality of India’s intellectual heritage (GS Paper IV - Ethical Foundations).

  3. Classical Dance: From Sacred Ritual to Secular Stage

    • Evolution and Patronage: The journey of dance forms like Bharatanatyam reflects the changing socio-political landscape of India. It transitioned from a sacred ritual integral to temple worship (Temple Patronage), to courtly entertainment (Royal Patronage), faced decline and social stigma during the colonial era (due to the anti-nautch movement), and was finally revived as a symbol of national culture and identity (Modern Revival).
    • Art and Social Reform: The revival of Bharatanatyam is inseparable from social reform. The efforts of E. Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale were not merely artistic but were aimed at destigmatizing the art and its practitioners, challenging Victorian morality, and reclaiming a cultural heritage. This connects the history of art to the history of women’s emancipation and social change (GS Paper I).

  4. Zoroastrianism in India: A Case Study of Integration and Cultural Preservation

    • Model Minority: The Parsi community in India provides a unique example of a refugee group that successfully integrated into the host society while preserving its distinct religious and cultural identity for over a millennium.
    • Contribution: Despite their small numbers, Parsis have made disproportionately large contributions to India’s economy (Tata, Godrej, Wadia), politics (Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta), law, and science (Homi Bhabha). This illustrates the positive impact of religious tolerance and cultural assimilation on nation-building (GS Paper I - Indian Society).

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements: (UPSC Prelims 2017)

    1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.
    2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but exist forever in a latent form. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (b)
    • Explanation: Sautrantika, Sammitiya, and Sarvastivadin were all sects of Buddhism, not Jainism. Statement 2 is a correct description of the Sarvastivadin school’s doctrine. This question is relevant as it tests knowledge of different philosophical schools that co-existed with schools like Ajivika.

  2. The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new Circuit House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which of the following statements are correct with respect to Somnath Temple? (UPSC Prelims 2022)

    1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines.
    2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by Al-Biruni.
    3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of the present day temple) was done by President S. Radhakrishnan. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (a)
    • Explanation: Statements 1 and 2 are correct. The Pran Pratishtha was done by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, in 1951. This is relevant to the topic of cultural heritage and patronage, similar to the patronage received by different philosophical and art traditions.

  3. With reference to Indian history, who of the following were known as “Kulah-Daran”? (UPSC Prelims 2022) (a) Arab merchants (b) Qalandars (c) Persian calligraphists (d) Sayyids Answer: (d)

    • Explanation: The Sayyids during the Delhi Sultanate were known as Kulah-Daran as they wore a pointed cap (Kulah). This question, while specific to medieval history, highlights the importance of cultural and religious identities, similar to the Parsis who migrated to India.

  4. Which one of the following statements correctly explains the effect of the Industrial Revolution on India during the first half of the nineteenth century? (UPSC Prelims 2020) (a) Indian handicrafts were ruined. (b) Machines were introduced in the Indian textile industry in large numbers. (c) Railway lines were laid in many parts of the country. (d) Heavy duties were imposed on the imports of British manufactures. Answer: (a)

    • Explanation: The Industrial Revolution in Britain led to the flooding of Indian markets with cheap, machine-made goods, which led to the de-industrialization and ruin of Indian handicrafts. This is relevant to the context of the decline of traditional patronage systems for arts like dance during the colonial era.

  5. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC Prelims 2018)

    1. Parivrajaka — Renunciant and Wanderer
    2. Shramana — Priest of high status
    3. Upasaka — Lay follower of Buddhism Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b)
    • Explanation: ‘Parivrajaka’ correctly refers to a renunciant wanderer. ‘Upasaka’ is a lay follower of Buddhism. ‘Shramana’ refers to ascetics and monks in traditions like Buddhism, Jainism, and Ajivika, who were often opposed to the Brahmanical priests, not priests of high status themselves. This is directly relevant to the heterodox schools.

Mains

  1. The Bhakti movement received a remarkable re-orientation with the advent of Sri Ramanujacharya. Discuss. (UPSC Mains 2022, GS-I) Answer: Sri Ramanujacharya provided the Bhakti movement with a strong philosophical foundation through his Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) philosophy.

    • Intellectual Framework: Before Ramanuja, the Bhakti tradition was largely devotional and poetic. He provided it with a robust intellectual and theological framework that could stand against the highly influential Advaita Vedanta of Shankaracharya.
    • Theistic Focus: He identified the ultimate reality, Brahman, with a personal God (Vishnu) possessing benevolent attributes. This made the concept of God more accessible and relatable for the common person, shifting the focus from an abstract, attributeless Brahman to a personal deity worthy of love and devotion.
    • Primacy of Bhakti: He established Bhakti Marga (path of devotion) as the primary means of salvation, accessible to all, unlike the Jnana Marga which was perceived as being restricted to the intellectual elite. He also emphasized the importance of divine grace (kripa) and self-surrender (prapatti).
    • Social Inclusivity: By championing devotion over ritual purity and birth-based status, his teachings had an egalitarian appeal. He is said to have initiated people from all castes, which became a cornerstone of the later Bhakti movements across India. In essence, Ramanujacharya transformed Bhakti from a popular sentiment into a powerful, philosophically-grounded, and socially inclusive spiritual movement that swept across the subcontinent.

  2. Discuss the main contributions of Gupta period and Chola period to Indian heritage and culture. (UPSC Mains 2022, GS-I) Answer: The Gupta and Chola periods are considered golden ages in Indian art, culture, and heritage. Gupta Period (c. 4th-6th Century CE):

    • Architecture: It marked the beginning of free-standing structural temple architecture in stone. Early examples include the temple at Deogarh (Dashavatara Temple) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon.
    • Sculpture: Masterpieces of sculpture were created at Sarnath, Mathura, and other centers, known for their grace, spiritual serenity, and classical balance. The seated Buddha from Sarnath is a prime example.
    • Literature: This was the age of Kalidasa, whose works like Abhijnanashakuntalam and Meghaduta are pinnacles of Sanskrit literature. The Puranas were also compiled during this period.
    • Science & Math: Aryabhata and Varahamihira made seminal contributions to astronomy and mathematics, including the concept of zero and the decimal system. Chola Period (c. 9th-13th Century CE):
    • Temple Architecture: The Cholas perfected Dravidian temple architecture, creating massive and magnificent stone temples like the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, a UNESCO World Heritage site. These temples were not just places of worship but also socio-economic centers.
    • Bronze Sculpture: The Cholas are world-renowned for their lost-wax bronze sculptures. The Nataraja (dancing Shiva) icon is the most famous Chola bronze, a sublime fusion of art, religion, and science.
    • Mural Paintings: Fine examples of Chola mural paintings can be found in the Brihadisvara Temple.
    • Patronage to Arts: The Cholas were great patrons of literature, dance (like Bharatanatyam, which flourished in the temple complexes), and music.

  3. Persian literary sources of medieval India reflect the spirit of the age. Comment. (UPSC Mains 2020, GS-I) Answer: Persian literary sources from medieval India are invaluable for understanding the era’s political, social, and cultural ethos.

    • Political Spirit: Court chronicles like Ziauddin Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi and Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama reflect the political theories, administrative structures, and military conquests of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. They provide an insider’s view of the ruling elite’s worldview, their claims to legitimacy, and court intrigues.
    • Syncretic Culture: Works by poets like Amir Khusrau show the vibrant cultural synthesis underway. He wrote in Persian but also pioneered the use of Hindavi, celebrating Indian seasons, festivals, and music, thus reflecting the spirit of Indo-Islamic cultural fusion.
    • Socio-Religious Life: Sufi literature (malfuzat or conversations of saints) provides insights into the religious and social life beyond the court. It reflects popular beliefs, the interaction between different communities, and the emphasis on mystical love and humanism that challenged rigid orthodoxy.
    • Historiographical Perspective: These sources reflect the biases and perspectives of their authors, who were often court-patronized. They predominantly present a top-down, elitist view of history. Yet, by critically analyzing them, we can reconstruct the dominant ideologies and the complex socio-political dynamics of medieval India.

  4. Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss. (UPSC Mains 2018, GS-I) Answer: Safeguarding India’s art heritage is a critical imperative for several reasons:

    • Link to Identity and History: Art heritage, including classical dance, monuments, paintings, and crafts, is a tangible link to our past. It embodies the historical evolution, philosophical thought, and cultural identity of the Indian civilization. Its loss would create an irrecoverable void in our collective memory.
    • Source of Economic Growth: Heritage is a significant economic asset. It drives tourism, which creates jobs and stimulates local economies. Traditional arts and crafts provide livelihoods to millions of artisans. Promoting and protecting heritage can be a powerful engine for sustainable development.
    • Soft Power and Global Standing: India’s rich and diverse cultural heritage is a key component of its soft power. Forms like classical dance, yoga, and Bollywood have a global appeal, enhancing India’s international prestige and fostering diplomatic goodwill.
    • Challenges: Indian heritage faces threats from neglect, lack of awareness, urbanization, environmental degradation, vandalism, and illicit trafficking of artifacts.
    • Measures Needed: Comprehensive measures are needed, including robust implementation of laws like the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, promoting community participation in conservation, integrating heritage education into curricula, leveraging technology for documentation and restoration, and providing sustainable livelihoods for artisans.

  5. Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction of the history of India. (UPSC Mains 2018, GS-I) Answer: The accounts of Chinese and Arab travellers are of immense importance for reconstructing India’s history, especially for periods where indigenous sources are scarce or biased. Chinese Travellers (e.g., Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang/Xuanzang, I-Tsing):

    • Focus: Their primary interest was Buddhism. They came to India to visit sacred sites and collect scriptures.
    • Contribution: Hiuen Tsang’s detailed account, Si-Yu-Ki, provides a comprehensive picture of India during the reign of Harsha. He described the political landscape, social structure (including the caste system), educational institutions (like Nalanda), economic conditions, and the state of Buddhism. His accounts are crucial for understanding post-Gupta India. Fa-Hien’s account offers a valuable glimpse into the Gupta empire. Arab Travellers (e.g., Al-Masudi, Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta):
    • Focus: Their interests were broader, covering geography, society, sciences, and customs.
    • Contribution: Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind (written in the 11th century) is a remarkably objective and scholarly work on Indian philosophy, sciences, religion, and social customs. It is a critical source for understanding India on the eve of the Turkic invasions. Ibn Battuta’s Rihla provides a vivid, first-hand account of the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in the 14th century, detailing court life, administration, and socio-economic conditions. Importance: These external accounts provide a valuable counter-perspective to official court chronicles, offer details on the lives of common people, and help corroborate or challenge information from indigenous sources, allowing for a more balanced and comprehensive reconstruction of Indian history.

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