1.1 - Art and Culture Notes 13

Elaborate Notes

Indian Painting

Prehistoric Paintings of India

Upper Palaeolithic Period (c. 40,000 - 10,000 BC)
- Context: This period corresponds to the last phase of the Ice Age, when humans (Homo sapiens) were primarily hunter-gatherers, using rudimentary stone tools. The impulse for artistic expression emerged as a way to document their world, perform rituals, or communicate.
- Sites and Findings: The rock shelters of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, a UNESCO World Heritage Site discovered by archaeologist V. S. Wakankar in 1957, are the most prominent examples. Other sites include Narsinghgarh (MP) and parts of the Mirzapur district (UP).
- Technique and Style: The earliest art forms were engravings on rock surfaces, known as Petroglyphs. These were created by scratching or chipping away the outer layer of the rock. The paintings were typically large, linear representations of animals like bison, tigers, elephants, and boars, alongside human stick-figures.
- Themes: The themes were directly linked to survival. Hunting scenes were dominant, often depicting men with spears and arrows attacking large animals. Scenes of gathering and sometimes fighting between groups are also found, providing a window into the life of early humans.
- Colours: Pigments were derived from natural minerals. Red and ochre were made from haematite (iron oxide), white from limestone or kaolin, and green from chalcedony. These were mixed with water and a binding agent like animal fat or plant sap.
Mesolithic Period (c. 10,000 - 6,000 BC)
- Context: This transitional period saw a warmer climate and the development of more sophisticated tools, notably microliths (small, sharp stone tools). These tools allowed for finer and more detailed artistic work.
- Style and Technique: While petroglyphs continued, paintings (pictographs) became more common and detailed. The figures were smaller in size compared to the Palaeolithic period, but the compositions were more complex and depicted group activities.
- Colours and Materials: Natural pigments remained in use. Red was the most dominant colour, often sourced from haematite, and in some cases, possibly mixed with animal blood for ritualistic significance and as a binder. Archaeologists suggest that binders like egg yolk or tree resin were used to increase the longevity and adhesion of the paint to the rock surface.
- Themes and Socio-cultural Insights: The thematic scope expanded significantly, reflecting a more complex social structure.
  - Hunting and Gathering: Depictions became more dynamic, showing group hunting strategies and coordination.
  - Social Life: Scenes of group celebration, dancing, household chores, and animal riding (e.g., horses) indicate the beginning of animal domestication and a developed community sense.
  - Division of Labour: Paintings showing men hunting while women are engaged in gathering or domestic activities suggest an early form of sexual division of labour.
  - Primitive Beliefs: Depictions of sexual union, phallus (lingam) worship, and yoni worship point towards early fertility cults and a primitive concept of worship and marriage.
- Prime Example: Bhimbetka’s rock shelters contain the richest repository of Mesolithic paintings, with layers of paintings superimposed over older Palaeolithic ones, offering a continuous record of human life.

Mural Painting Tradition of India

Mural paintings are large-scale artworks executed directly onto walls, ceilings, or other large permanent surfaces. They are distinct from miniatures, which are small and portable.

Mural Painting	State	Dynasty/Patrons	Period	Theme & Key Features
Ajanta	Maharashtra	Vakatakas (notably Harishena), Satavahanas (earlier phase)	c. 200 BC - 650 AD	Primarily Buddhist. Depicts Jataka tales (stories of Buddha’s previous lives) and events from the life of Buddha. Famous murals include Padmapani and Vajrapani (Cave 1). The technique used is often referred to as Fresco-Secco or Tempera, where painting is done on a dry plaster surface.
Ellora	Maharashtra	Rashtrakuta	c. 600 - 1000 AD	Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain. While architecturally famous, its murals are significant. The Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) features murals depicting Vaishnavite themes, such as Vishnu and Lakshmi, and Shaivite themes like Ravana shaking Mount Kailash.
Bagh	Madhya Pradesh	Gupta	c. 5th - 6th Century AD	Largely Buddhist in theme, but with a more secular and worldly character than Ajanta. The style is naturalistic and captures human emotions and daily life with spontaneity. The most famous is the ‘Rang Mahal’ (Cave 4).
Sittanavasal	Tamil Nadu	Pandyas (primarily), with some Pallava influence	c. 7th - 9th Century AD	Primarily Jainism. Located in a rock-cut Jain temple, the murals depict scenes from Jain scriptures, most famously the Samavasarana (a divine pavilion where Tirthankaras preach). The ceiling features a prominent lotus pond.
Badami	Karnataka	Early Chalukyas (notably Mangalesha)	c. 6th Century AD	Primarily Vaishnavite. Cave 4 has the earliest surviving Brahmanical murals. One famous panel depicts court scenes from the reign of Chalukyan king Kirtivarman I. The style shows influences from Vakataka painting.
Chola	Thanjavur (TN)	Imperial Cholas (Rajaraja I)	c. 11th Century AD	Hindu Mythology and Royal Figures. Found in the Brihadeswara Temple. They depict Shaivite themes, stories of saints (Nayanars), and portraits of the patron Rajaraja Chola and his guru. Executed in a true fresco technique.
Vijayanagar/ Lepakshi	Andhra Pradesh	Vijayanagara Empire (Krishnadevaraya’s era)	c. 16th Century AD	Themes are both religious (from Ramayana, Mahabharata) and secular, depicting social life, costumes, and processions. Found in the Veerabhadra temple at Lepakshi. Characterized by angular features, prominent eyes, and a complete absence of primary colours like blue, relying instead on ochre, yellow, and black outlines.
Nayak	Madurai (TN)	Nayaka Rulers	c. 17th - 18th Century AD	Themes from Hindu mythology (Ramayana, Mahabharata) and episodes from the life of Vardhamana Mahavira. Characterized by vibrant colours and narrative panels, seen in temples around Madurai.
Kerala Mural	Kerala	Local Rulers (e.g., Travancore)	Post-16th Century AD	Based on Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas. Characterised by vibrant colours (using natural pigments), bold lines, and depiction of figures in a stylized, almost theatrical manner, influenced by local art forms like Kathakali. Found on temple walls across North and Central Kerala.

Miniature Painting

Miniature paintings are intricate, small-scale paintings known for their detailed execution. They were primarily made on perishable materials like palm leaves, paper, and cloth. Early conventions, as described in some texts, suggested a size no larger than 25 sq. inches and objects depicted at 1/6th their actual size, though these rules were not strictly followed later.

Early Miniatures
- Pala School (c. 8th - 12th Century AD):
  - Patronage: Flourished under the Pala dynasty in eastern India (Bengal and Bihar).
  - Medium: Primarily painted on palm leaves (Talapatra) as manuscript illustrations.
  - Themes: Exclusively Buddhist, focusing on Mahayana and Vajrayana deities. Manuscripts like the Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita were famously illustrated.
  - Style: Characterized by sinuous lines, subdued colours, simple compositions, and graceful figures, reminiscent of Ajanta murals.
- Western Indian / Apabhramsha School (c. 11th - 15th Century AD):
  - Region: Practised mainly in Gujarat and South Rajasthan.
  - Patronage: Primarily patronised by wealthy Jain traders and merchants.
  - Medium: Initially on palm leaves, but the use of paper became widespread from the 14th century onwards.
  - Themes: Mainly Jainism. Illustrated manuscripts of texts like the Kalpasutra and the Kalakacharyakatha (story of the monk Kalaka) were common.
  - Style: Distinctive features include angular figures, pointed noses, faces in profile with a protruding “further eye,” and the use of bright, bold colours. The term ‘Apabhramsha’ refers to its perceived deviation from classical norms.

Mughal Miniature Painting

Origins: The Mughal school was a synthesis of the indigenous Indian tradition and the Persian Safavid school. When Humayun returned to India from his exile in Persia, he brought with him two master painters of the Safavid school, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad. They laid the foundation of Mughal painting in India.
Akbar’s Period (1556-1605): The Period of Synthesis
- Patronage: Akbar established an imperial atelier or Karkhana called the Tasvirkhana, where hundreds of artists collaborated. He actively included Indian painters from across the subcontinent (e.g., Daswant, Basawan), leading to a fusion of Persian elegance with Indian dynamism.
- Style: Realism and narrative storytelling were the keynotes. Paintings were full of action, movement, and vivid details.
- Major Works: Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad supervised the monumental project of the Hamzanama, illustrating the epic tales of Amir Hamza. This set the stage for illustrating Indian texts, such as the Razmnama (Persian translation of the Mahabharata) and the Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot).
Jahangir’s Period (1605-1627): The Climax
- Patronage: Jahangir was a connoisseur of art and a keen naturalist. The scale of manuscript illustration decreased, and individual paintings became more important.
- Style and Themes: The style reached its peak in refinement and naturalism. Jahangir’s passion for flora and fauna led to extraordinary paintings of birds, animals, and flowers by artists like Ustad Mansur.
- Innovations: This period saw the perfection of portraiture, with a focus on capturing the psychological depth of the subject. The technique involved highlighting the main figure while keeping the background blurred. The tradition of creating ornate decorated margins (hashiyas) also became a hallmark.
Shah Jahan’s Period (1628-1658): Period of Idealization
- Patronage and Style: While Shah Jahan’s primary interest was architecture, painting continued to be patronised. The spontaneity and realism of Jahangir’s era gave way to a more formal, rigid, and idealized style. There was an over-usage of gold and silver pigments, creating a lavish but less lifelike effect.
- European Influence: The influence of European art, which had begun in Jahangir’s court, became more pronounced. The use of chiaroscuro (the treatment of light and shadow) to create depth and volume is clearly visible. Pencil and charcoal sketching were also introduced.
Aurangzeb’s Period (1658-1707): The Period of Decline
- Due to Aurangzeb’s orthodox religious beliefs and focus on military campaigns, royal patronage for art forms like painting was severely curtailed. The imperial ateliers were largely disbanded, forcing artists to seek patronage in the regional kingdoms of Rajasthan and the Pahari hills. This dispersal was a key factor in the development and flourishing of these regional miniature schools.

Rajasthani Painting (c. 17th - 19th Century)

Evolved from a blend of the indigenous Apabhramsha style and influences from Mughal painting after the 17th century.

Common Attributes:
- Themes: Deeply rooted in the Bhakti movement, with themes associated with Lord Krishna (e.g., Krishna Lila, Raslila) being extremely popular. Literary works like the Gita Govinda by Jayadeva (12th-century poem on Radha-Krishna’s love) and Chaurapanchasika by Bilhana were frequently illustrated.
- Iconography: Lord Krishna is almost always depicted in blue colour, symbolizing his divine nature (Shyam Varna).
- Folk Themes: Local folk legends like the romantic tale of ‘Dhola-Maru’ were also popular subjects.
- Colour Palette: Use of bold, vibrant, and contrasting colours is a key feature.
Schools of Rajasthani Painting:
- Marwar School (Jodhpur, Bikaner): Known for its depiction of Krishna-related themes and Ragamala paintings. Ragamala paintings are a unique series that visualizes musical modes (ragas), creating a synthesis of art, music, and poetry. While conceptually innovative, the execution was often considered less refined than other schools.
- Hadoti School (Kota-Bundi): This region’s lush green vegetation and abundance of wildlife are vividly captured in its paintings. Kota paintings are particularly famous for their dynamic hunting scenes.
- Kishangarh School: This is considered the climax of Rajasthani painting, flourishing under the patronage of Raja Sawant Singh (who wrote poetry as Nagari Das) in the mid-18th century.
  - Style: Known for its highly stylized and exaggerated features: sharp, elongated noses, pointed chins, almond-shaped, arching eyes that often extend to the margin of the face, and slender, elegant figures.
  - Famous Painting: The most iconic painting is ‘Bani Thani’, painted by Nihal Chand. It is believed to be a portrait of Raja Sawant Singh’s consort and is celebrated for its idealized beauty and grace, often called the “Mona Lisa of India.”

Pahari Painting (c. 17th - 19th Century)

This school developed in the Himalayan foothills of North India. It evolved from Mughal influence blending with local folk traditions.

Kangra School: Considered the pinnacle of Pahari painting, it reached its zenith under the patronage of Raja Sansar Chand (1775-1823).
- Style: It is seen as an extension of the Kishangarh style in its lyricism and delicacy but with its own distinct features. The style is soft, lyrical, and naturalistic.
- Colours: A unique feature is the use of soft, cool colours and a glittery effect, which was achieved by using pigment derived from the crushed wings of a specific beetle.
- Themes: While Krishna themes were popular, a famous theme is the depiction of the ‘Ashtanayika’ - the eight types of heroines (nayikas) as classified in classical Indian texts like the Natyashastra, each representing a different emotional state in relation to her beloved.

South Indian Painting

Thanjavur (Tanjore) Painting:
- Patronage: Flourished under the Nayaka rulers and later the Maratha rulers of Thanjavur around the 17th century.
- Technique: These are panel paintings on wood. A cotton cloth is pasted onto a wooden panel using a paste of tamarind seeds and jaggery. The surface is then coated and smoothened. The artist then creates a raised embossing effect using a mix of limestone powder and a binding agent. Finally, it is painted with vibrant colours.
- Themes: Primarily devotional, depicting Hindu gods and goddesses (especially Krishna) in static, iconic poses.
- Special Attribute: The hallmark of Tanjore painting is the use of real gold foil and inlaid semi-precious stones or glass pieces, which give the painting a rich, three-dimensional, and gilded appearance.
Mysore Painting:
- Patronage: Developed under the patronage of the Wodeyar kings of Mysore, particularly Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799-1868).
- Technique and Style: Similar to Tanjore in theme and use of a wooden base, but it differs in key aspects. The embossing is thinner and more delicate than in Tanjore paintings.
- Special Attribute: A unique feature is the application of ‘Gesso paste’, a mixture of white lead powder, gamboge (a yellow pigment), and glue. This paste is used for the raised relief work and as a base, which increases the longevity of the painting and gives it a characteristic lustre. Stones and gold foil are used more subtly.
- Themes: Based on Hindu mythology and courtly life, including the famous Mysore Dasara procession.
Kalamkari:
- Context: ‘Kalamkari’ literally means “pen-work” (kalam - pen, kari - work). It is a traditional art of hand-painting or block-printing on cotton textiles, practised in Andhra Pradesh.
- Technique: It uses a tamarind-twig pen and natural, vegetable-based dyes. The process involves multiple steps of treating the cloth, drawing the outline, filling in colours, and washing.
- Two Major Styles:
  1. Srikalahasti Style: This style is done entirely by freehand drawing with the ‘kalam’. The themes are predominantly based on Hindu religious narratives from the epics and Puranas, often created as large narrative scrolls for temples.
  2. Masulipatnam Style: This style incorporates block-printing for motifs alongside some hand-painting. It was heavily influenced by Persian art due to trade links and features secular themes like floral motifs, geometric patterns, and scenes of courtly life. It became a very popular textile for export.

Prelims Pointers

Petroglyphs: Rock engravings or carvings, characteristic of Upper Palaeolithic art.
Bhimbetka: UNESCO World Heritage Site in Madhya Pradesh, known for prehistoric rock shelters. Discovered by V. S. Wakankar.
Microliths: Small, sophisticated stone tools characteristic of the Mesolithic period.
Ajanta Murals: Patronised by Vakatakas; Theme: Buddhism (Jataka tales); Technique: Fresco-Secco/Tempera.
Ellora Murals: Patronised by Rashtrakutas; Themes: Hindu, Buddhist, Jain.
Sittanavasal Murals: Patronised by Pandyas; Theme: Jainism; Famous depiction: Samavasarana.
Pala School: Eastern India; Medium: Palm Leaf; Theme: Buddhist.
Apabhramsha School: Western India; Patrons: Jain traders; Stylistic feature: Protruding “further eye.”
Humayun’s Painters: Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad from the Persian Safavid school.
Akbar’s Atelier: Tasvirkhana.
Major Mughal Manuscripts: Hamzanama, Razmnama (Mahabharata), Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot).
Jahangir’s Period: Climax of Mughal painting; Focus on naturalism (flora/fauna), portraiture, and decorated margins.
Ustad Mansur: Famous painter in Jahangir’s court, known for his depiction of birds and animals (e.g., The Falcon).
Rajasthani Painting Themes: Lord Krishna, Gita Govinda (by Jayadeva), Dhola-Maru.
Bani Thani: Famous Kishangarh painting by Nihal Chand, patronised by Raja Sawant Singh. Known for exaggerated, stylized features.
Kangra School: Pahari painting style; Patron: Raja Sansar Chand; Famous theme: Ashtanayika (eight heroines).
Tanjore Painting: Feature: Thick gold foil, glass pieces, and heavy embossing on wooden panels.
Mysore Painting: Feature: Use of ‘Gesso Paste’ (lead, gamboge, glue) for delicate relief work.
Kalamkari: Traditional textile art from Andhra Pradesh.
- Srikalahasti: Freehand drawing, Hindu religious themes.
- Masulipatnam: Block-printing, secular and Persian-influenced themes.

Mains Insights

Art as a Reflection of Society and Environment:
- Prehistoric Art: The themes of prehistoric paintings (hunting, gathering, community dancing) are a direct reflection of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle. The shift from large, individual animals (Palaeolithic) to group activities (Mesolithic) indicates a change in social organization and technology.
- Regional Art: The environment directly influenced themes and styles. For example, Hadoti (Kota-Bundi) paintings are rich in green landscapes and wildlife, reflecting the region’s geography.
The Role of Patronage in Shaping Art:
- Royal Patronage: The personal interests of patrons heavily dictated artistic trends. Akbar’s desire for cultural synthesis led to a dynamic, narrative style. Jahangir’s naturalist inclination led to the zenith of realistic flora, fauna, and portrait painting. Shah Jahan’s preference for grandeur resulted in a static, heavily ornamented style. Aurangzeb’s lack of patronage led to the dispersal of artists and the rise of regional schools.
- Religious and Community Patronage: Pala and Western Indian schools were patronised not by kings alone, but by Buddhist monasteries and wealthy Jain merchants, respectively. This resulted in art that was primarily religious and illustrative of sacred manuscripts. This contrasts with the court-centric focus of Mughal art.
Syncretism and Influence in Indian Painting:
- Mughal Synthesis: Mughal painting is a prime example of cultural syncretism, blending the fine, decorative lines of Persian Safavid art with the vibrant colours, dynamism, and emotional depth of indigenous Indian traditions.
- European Influence: From the late Jahangir period onwards, European influences like the use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro) for creating three-dimensional effects and single-point perspective became visible in Mughal and later paintings.
- Regional Blending: Rajasthani and Pahari schools are themselves a synthesis of Mughal techniques (refinement, naturalism) and local folk traditions and religious (Bhakti) themes.
Continuity and Change in Artistic Traditions:
- Continuity: The lyrical lines and graceful figures of Ajanta murals can be seen as a continuing influence in the Pala manuscript illustrations centuries later. The emphasis on religious narratives remains a constant thread from ancient murals to medieval miniatures and folk paintings.
- Change: The medium of painting evolved from rock surfaces (prehistoric) to walls (murals), then to palm leaves, and finally to paper and cloth (miniatures), with each change in medium affecting the scale and style of the art. The purpose of art also shifted from potential ritualistic documentation (prehistoric) to religious storytelling (murals) and elite courtly expression (Mughal miniatures).

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

The well-known painting “Bani Thani” belongs to the (2018) (a) Bundi school (b) Jaipur school (c) Kangra school (d) Kishangarh school Answer: (d) Kishangarh school. Bani Thani, painted by Nihal Chand, is the most famous work of the Kishangarh school, known for its stylized and elongated features.
Kalamkari painting refers to (2015 - Note: Included for relevance, slightly older than 5 years) (a) a hand-painted cotton textile in South India (b) a handmade drawing on bamboo handicrafts in North-East India (c) a block-painted woollen cloth in Western Himalayan region of India (d) a hand-painted decorative silk cloth in North-Western India Answer: (a) a hand-painted cotton textile in South India. Kalamkari is a traditional art of painting or block-printing on cotton cloth primarily practiced in Andhra Pradesh, South India.

Consider the following pairs: (2023)

Site	Well known for
1. Besnagar	Shaivite cave shrine
2. Bhaja	Buddhist cave shrine
3. Sittanavasal	Jain cave shrine
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) All three
(d) None
Answer: (b) Only two. Bhaja is a well-known Buddhist cave shrine. Sittanavasal is famous for its Jain murals and is a Jain cave shrine. Besnagar (Vidisha) is famous for the Heliodorus pillar (Vaishnavism), not a Shaivite cave shrine. Thus, pairs 2 and 3 are correct.

With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs: (2020)
1. Parivrajaka — Renunciant and Wanderer
2. Shramana — Priest with a high status
3. Upasaka — Lay follower of Buddhism Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) 1 and 3 only. While not directly a painting question, understanding religious figures is crucial for interpreting themes in Buddhist and Jain art. Parivrajaka is a wanderer, and Upasaka is a lay follower. A Shramana was a monk who renounced worldly life, not a high-status priest in the Brahmanical sense.
The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft-illustrated paintings at (2017 - Note: Included for relevance) (a) Ajanta (b) Badami (c) Bagh (d) Ellora Answer: (a) Ajanta. The mural of Bodhisattva Padmapani holding a lotus is a masterpiece located in Cave 1 of the Ajanta caves.

Mains

Evaluate the nature of the Bhakti Literature and its contribution to Indian culture. (GS-I, 2021) (Insight: While this question is on literature, a strong answer would include how Bhakti literature, like Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda or the poetry of Surdas and Mirabai, formed the primary thematic basis for Rajasthani and Pahari miniature painting schools, thus contributing to India’s visual arts culture.)
The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art and history. Discuss. (GS-I, 2020) (Insight: In this answer, you must discuss how the murals within these rock-cut structures (like Ajanta, Ellora, Sittanavasal) provide invaluable information about the religious beliefs, social customs, attire, and courtly life of their respective periods, supplementing the knowledge gained from the architecture itself.)
Pala period is the most significant phase in the history of Buddhism in India. Enumerate. (GS-I, 2020) (Insight: Part of the answer should focus on the contribution of the Pala dynasty to Buddhist art. This would involve a detailed discussion of the Pala school of miniature painting, its characteristics, its focus on Mahayana-Vajrayana themes, and its role in disseminating Buddhist art to Nepal and Tibet through illustrated manuscripts.)
Highlight the Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements in the Gandhara art. (GS-I, 2019) (Insight: Though this question focuses on sculpture, it highlights the UPSC’s interest in syncretism and foreign influence on Indian art. A similar analytical framework can be applied to discuss the Persian and European influences on Mughal painting.)
Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss. (GS-I, 2018) (Insight: This question requires you to identify various forms of Indian art heritage, including mural and miniature paintings. You can cite examples like the decaying murals at Ajanta or the theft of miniatures to argue for better preservation techniques, chemical conservation, digital archiving, and policies to prevent illegal trafficking of art.)

GS Notes