GS Notes

1.1 - Art and Culture Notes 14

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Elaborate Notes

OTHER PAINTINGS

  • Thangka Painting:

    • Origin and Region: Thangka painting is a Tibetan Buddhist art form that originated around the 7th century AD and is primarily practised in Tibet, Nepal, and the Himalayan regions of India, particularly Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, and Sikkim.
    • Etymology: The word ‘Thangka’ in Tibetan means ‘recorded message’. These paintings are not merely decorative but serve as crucial tools for spiritual practice, meditation, and teaching.
    • Materials and Technique: Traditionally, Thangkas are painted on cotton or silk appliqué. The canvas is prepared by treating it with a mixture of chalk and glue. The paints are derived from mineral and organic pigments, often mixed with a binder of animal glue. In contemporary times, artists have also adopted modern canvases and acrylic paints. The completion of a Thangka is a meticulous process, often taking months or even years.
    • Iconography and Themes: The subject matter is almost exclusively religious. Common depictions include Buddhas (like Shakyamuni or Amitabha), Bodhisattvas (like Avalokiteshvara or Manjushri), deities, Mandalas (geometric representations of the cosmos), and scenes from the lives of saints and lamas. The Sino-Tibetan influence is evident in the depiction of figures, landscapes, and mythical creatures like the Tibetan dragon, which symbolizes power, wisdom, and the creative force of the universe.
    • Function: Thangkas are used as aids in meditation and visualization practices. They are often hung in monasteries or private altars and are carried in ceremonial processions.

  • Madhubani Painting:

    • Origin and Region: Also known as Mithila painting, this art form originates from the Mithilanchal region of Bihar. It has a long tradition, believed by some to date back to the time of the Ramayana when King Janaka commissioned artists to paint his daughter Sita’s wedding. Historically, it was a ‘Bhitti Chitra’ or wall art, predominantly practised by women to decorate the walls and floors of their homes during festivals and social ceremonies like marriages.
    • Technique and Materials: Initially, the painting was done on freshly plastered mud walls. The colours were natural, derived from plants and other organic sources (e.g., turmeric for yellow, indigo for blue, soot for black), and were mixed with rice flour paste or cow dung for application. Artists used simple tools like twigs, matchsticks, and even fingers. Following the severe drought of 1966-68, the All India Handicrafts Board encouraged women to replicate their art on paper, leading to its commercialisation and global recognition.
    • Themes and Styles: The themes are largely drawn from Hindu mythology (depicting deities like Krishna, Rama, Durga, Lakshmi), nature (sun, moon, birds, animals), and social events (weddings, festivals). A key characteristic is the absence of empty space; the entire canvas is intricately filled with patterns and motifs.
      • Aripan: These are floor paintings (akin to Rangoli or Kolam) made at the entrance or courtyard for auspicious occasions.
      • Gosai Ghar (Puja Room) Madhubani: These are paintings inside the prayer room, with a purely religious and devotional theme.
      • Kohbar Madhubani: Created in the nuptial chamber, these paintings are rich in fertility symbols and tantric imagery, meant to bless the newly-wed couple. Key symbols include the lotus plant, bamboo grove, fish, and tortoise.
    • Recognition: Many Madhubani artists like Jagdamba Devi, Sita Devi, and Ganga Devi have been awarded the Padma Shri, highlighting the art form’s national importance. It was granted the Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2007.

  • Patna Kalam Painting:

    • Origin and History: Also known as the ‘Company School’ of painting, it flourished in and around Patna from the late 18th to the mid-20th century. Its practitioners were descendants of Mughal court painters who, after the decline of Mughal patronage under Aurangzeb, migrated from Delhi to Murshidabad and later to Patna, a thriving commercial centre under the British East India Company.
    • Style and Technique: It is a unique hybrid style. While the artists retained the meticulous detail and fine brushwork of the Mughal tradition, they incorporated elements of European realism, particularly the use of light and shade (shading) and perspective, to cater to their British patrons. A distinctive technique was the direct application of paint with a brush without prior sketching, a method known as ‘Kajli-Syahi’.
    • Patronage and Themes: The patrons were primarily officials of the East India Company and British residents who wanted ‘souvenirs’ of Indian life. Consequently, the themes moved away from the royal court scenes of Mughal art. Patna Kalam painters focused on the mundane: depicting the daily lives of common people, local festivals, artisans at work (weavers, potters), traders, and the diverse flora and fauna of the region. This focus on the common man’s life and hardships was a significant thematic departure.
    • Decline: The style declined with the advent of photography in the late 19th century, which provided a cheaper and quicker alternative for documentation. Ishwari Prasad Varma is considered the last major exponent of this school.

  • Manjusha Painting:

    • Origin and Region: This folk art form originates from the Anga region, particularly Bhagalpur in Bihar. It is also known as ‘Angika Art’ or ‘Snake Painting’.
    • Characteristics and Themes: It is a narrative art form, traditionally painted on pots and boxes (‘Manjushas’) made of jute-straw and paper. These boxes were used in the Bishahari Puja, a festival dedicated to the snake goddess. The central theme revolves around the folklore of Bihula-Bishari, celebrating the love of Bihula for her husband and her triumph over the snake goddess Manasa. A defining feature is the prominent and recurring depiction of snakes in every painting. The art uses only three colours: pink, yellow, and green.

  • Patachitra:

    • Origin and Region: ‘Pata’ means cloth and ‘Chitra’ means picture. This traditional scroll painting is native to the state of Odisha, especially centred around the temple town of Puri. Its origins can be linked to the cult of Lord Jagannath and the temple traditions dating back to at least the 12th century.
    • Technique and Materials: The ‘Chitrakars’ (painters) prepare the canvas by coating a piece of cloth with a mixture of chalk and gum made from tamarind seeds. The paints are natural, derived from minerals and shells. The process is highly disciplined, with the artist first completing the border and then sketching the figures, followed by the application of colours, starting with white. A final lacquer coating gives the painting a glossy finish.
    • Themes: The primary themes are mythological, revolving around the Jagannath and Vaishnava cults. Stories from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the life of Krishna are popular. The most famous depiction is of the Jagannath trinity: Lord Jagannath, Balabhadra, and Subhadra. With time, the art form has diversified to include a wider range of themes and is now practised on paper, tussar silk, and even palm leaves (‘Tala Patachitra’).

  • Kalighat Painting:

    • Origin and History: This school of painting emerged in the 19th century in the vicinity of the Kalighat Kali Temple in Calcutta (now Kolkata). It was a response to the socio-cultural changes occurring in the city, which was the capital of British India.
    • Style and Themes: Kalighat paintings are characterized by bold, sweeping brush lines, simple forms, and vibrant colours. Initially, the artists, known as ‘Patuas’, painted religious figures for pilgrims. However, they soon began to depict secular and contemporary themes, adopting a ‘subaltern approach’. They created satirical portraits of the ‘babus’ (the newly anglicized Bengali elite), critiqued social hypocrisies, and documented current events like the ‘Elokeshi affair’ (a sensational murder case). This art form thus became a powerful medium of social commentary on the life of marginalized and ordinary people in a rapidly changing urban environment.

  • Warli Painting:

    • Origin and Region: This is the traditional art of the Warli tribe, an indigenous community residing in the mountainous and coastal areas of Maharashtra and Gujarat, particularly around the city of Bombay (now Mumbai).
    • Style and Technique: Traditionally, these were wall paintings (‘bhitti-chitra’) created inside their mud huts, usually by women, for special occasions like weddings. The style is distinguished by its use of basic geometric shapes: a circle (representing the sun and moon), a triangle (representing mountains and conical trees), and a square (representing a sacred enclosure or a piece of land). The human form is a simple composition of two triangles joined at the hip with a circle for a head. The paintings are typically done on a red ochre or dark background using a white pigment made from rice paste, water, and gum.
    • Themes: The themes are deeply connected to the community’s life and beliefs. They depict scenes of farming, harvesting, hunting, fishing, festivals, and dances, most notably the ‘Tarpa dance’, where villagers dance in a spiral formation around a central musician. The art celebrates the tribe’s harmonious relationship with nature and their sedentary, community-oriented lifestyle.

  • Pabuji ki Phad Painting:

    • Origin and Region: This is a folk art form from Rajasthan. A ‘Phad’ is a long, painted scroll of cloth that depicts the life, exploits, and heroic deeds of a folk deity or hero. ‘Pabuji ki Phad’ is dedicated to Pabuji, a 14th-century Rathore Rajput chief who is revered as a folk deity by the Rabari pastoralist community.
    • Narrative Tradition: The Phad serves as a portable temple or a visual aid for a narrative performance. Priest-singers, known as ‘Bhopas’ and ‘Bhopis’ of the Nayak community, travel from village to village and perform the epic of Pabuji. The Bhopa recites or sings the story, pointing to the corresponding scenes on the Phad with a bow, while the Bhopi accompanies him, holding a lamp to illuminate the specific panel.
    • Significance of Pabuji: Pabuji is considered an incarnation of Lakshmana and is worshipped as a saviour of cattle, particularly camels. The Rabari community invokes him to protect their livestock from diseases.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

  • Scripts and Languages of India:

    • Brahmi and Kharosthi Scripts: Archaeological evidence, primarily the edicts of Emperor Ashoka (c. 268-232 BCE), confirms that Brahmi and Kharosthi were the earliest widespread scripts in ancient India.
      • Brahmi: It was used across the Mauryan empire in mainland India. It is written from left to right. Scholars like James Prinsep, who deciphered the script in 1837, considered it the ancestor of nearly all scripts used in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Tibet, hence it is rightly called the ‘Mother of the majority of Indian scripts’. Its origins are debated, with some scholars suggesting an indigenous origin (e.g., from the Indus script) while others propose a West Asian (Aramaic) influence.
      • Kharosthi: This script was prevalent in the North-Western regions of the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan). It is written from right to left and is clearly derived from the Aramaic script, which was used in the Achaemenid Empire.
    • Abugida System: Most indigenous Indian scripts (like Devanagari, Bengali, Tamil, Kannada) are not true alphabets but ‘abugidas’ or ‘alphasyllabaries’. In this system, the primary unit is a consonant which has an inherent vowel (usually ‘a’). Other vowels are represented by adding diacritical marks to the consonant. Vowels are written as independent, full characters only when they appear at the beginning of a word. This system is considered highly phonetic and systematic.

  • Literature:

    • Sanskrit Language and Literature:
      • Status: Sanskrit is one of the oldest Indo-European languages and holds a position in Indian culture analogous to that of Latin and Greek in Europe. It is considered a ‘Devabhasha’ (language of the gods). Its influence transcends regional and religious boundaries; it was a lingua franca for scholarship and liturgy not only for Hinduism but also for Mahayana Buddhism and Jainism. Its reach extended to Southeast Asia, influencing languages and cultures in regions like Cambodia and Indonesia.
      • Vedic Sanskrit: The earliest form of Sanskrit is found in the Vedas, composed by the Indo-Aryans between approximately 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. This literature was initially part of an oral tradition (‘Shruti’ - that which is heard) and was meticulously preserved through generations before being written down.

  • Vedic Literature in Sanskrit:

    • Vedic Texts (Samhitas):

      • Rig Veda: The oldest and most important of the Vedas. The name is from ‘Rk’ (praise, verse). It is a collection of 1028 hymns (suktas) arranged into 10 books or ‘Mandalas’. Mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest and are known as the ‘family books’ as they are attributed to specific families of rishis. Mandalas 1, 8, 9, and 10 were composed later. The famous ‘Purusha Sukta’, which describes the origin of the four varnas, is in the 10th Mandala. The themes are diverse:
        1. Nature Worship: Hymns praise natural forces personified as deities like Indra (rain/thunder), Agni (fire), Surya (sun), and Soma. They contain vivid descriptions of the natural landscape of the Sapta-Sindhu region.
        2. Prayer and Ritual: The hymns are invocations to these deities, seeking boons like wealth, health, long life, and victory in battles.
        3. Socio-religious life: Provides insights into the semi-nomadic, pastoralist society of the early Vedic Aryans, their tribal polity (‘Jana’), and religious practices centred around yajnas.
        4. Priest: The invoking priest was called the ‘Hotra’ or ‘Hotri’.
      • Sama Veda: ‘Saman’ means melody. This Veda is a collection of chants and melodies (‘saman’). Most of its verses (except 75) are borrowed from the Rig Veda and are set to music. It is the foundational text for Indian classical music and dance. The ‘Gandharva Veda’, an Upaveda dealing with the science of music, is associated with it. The priest who sang these hymns was the ‘Udgatar’.
      • Yajur Veda: ‘Yajus’ means sacrificial formula. This is the ‘Veda of Rituals’. It serves as a prose manual for priests performing yajnas (sacrifices). It details the procedures, mantras, and oblations for various sacrifices. A significant feature is its insights into early Indian mathematics, particularly geometry (‘Shulbasutras’, an appendix to the Veda), which provides precise instructions for the construction of different types of altars. It is divided into two main rescensions:
        • Krishna (Black) Yajur Veda: Contains the mantras along with their commentary and explanatory prose mixed within the text.
        • Shukla (White) Yajur Veda: Has a clear separation between the mantras (Samhita) and the explanatory text (found in the Shatapatha Brahmana).
        • Priest: The officiating priest was the ‘Adhvaryu’.
      • Atharva Veda: Named after the Atharvan and Angiras families of rishis, this Veda was compiled later and was given canonical status long after the first three. It is the most eclectic of the Vedas and provides a clearer picture of the beliefs and practices of the common people. Its themes are wide-ranging:
        1. Medicine: Contains hymns for the cure of diseases, making it a precursor to Ayurveda.
        2. Spells and Charms: Includes incantations to ward off evil spirits, ensure success in love, and win battles.
        3. Practical Knowledge: It covers topics like botany, agriculture, statecraft, and even Vedic mathematics.
        4. Philosophy: Contains some of the earliest speculative hymns about the nature of the cosmos.

    • Extended Texts of Vedas:

      • Brahmanas: These are prose commentaries on the four Vedas, explaining the symbolism and meaning behind the sacrificial rituals (‘yajna’). They form a bridge between the ritualistic Samhitas and the philosophical Aranyakas. Important examples include the Aitareya Brahmana (attached to Rig Veda) and the Shatapatha Brahmana (attached to Shukla Yajur Veda).
      • Aranyakas: Literally ‘forest texts’, these were composed by hermits living in the forests. They represent a philosophical shift from a focus on external ritual to internal meditation and symbolism. They deal with esoteric concepts, mysticism, and the spiritual interpretation of Vedic rituals, intended for those in the ‘Vanaprastha’ (hermit) stage of life. They tackle profound questions about life, death, and the soul.
      • Upanishads: ‘Upa’ (near) + ‘ni’ (down) + ‘shad’ (to sit), meaning to sit down near the guru to receive secret knowledge. Also known as ‘Vedanta’ (the end of the Vedas), they represent the culmination of Vedic philosophical thought. They mark a shift from ritualism to ‘jnana’ (knowledge) and philosophical speculation. They explore core concepts of Hindu philosophy like ‘Brahman’ (the ultimate reality), ‘Atman’ (the individual soul), the identity of Brahman and Atman (‘Aham Brahmasmi’), karma, and moksha. There are over 108 Upanishads, with the Muktika canon listing the principal ones. Famous examples include the Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, and Katha Upanishads.

PURANA

  • Meaning and Importance: ‘Purana’ means ‘ancient’. They are a vast genre of post-Vedic texts that combine mythology, legends, history, and religious teachings. They played a crucial role in popularizing and disseminating the ideals of Hinduism among the masses through engaging stories and narratives.
  • Structure and Content: Traditionally, a Purana is expected to cover five subjects (‘Pancha-lakshana’):
    1. Sarga: The original creation of the universe by the supreme being.
    2. Pratisarga: The periodic cycles of destruction and re-creation.
    3. Vamsa: The genealogies of gods and rishis.
    4. Vamshanucharita: The histories of the solar (Suryavamsha) and lunar (Chandravamsha) dynasties of kings.
    5. Manvantara: The cosmic cycles presided over by different Manus (progenitors of humanity), detailing the story of the first humans.
  • Classification: There are 18 major Puranas (Mahapuranas), including well-known texts like the Bhagavata Purana (dedicated to Krishna), Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, and Markandeya Purana. They are a rich source for understanding the development of sectarian Hinduism (Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism) and provide valuable, though often mythologized, historical information.

CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE

  • This period, particularly flourishing during the Gupta era (c. 4th-6th century CE), saw a great efflorescence of secular and creative literature in a refined, classical form of Sanskrit, distinct from the older Vedic Sanskrit.
  • Dramatists and Poets:
    • Kalidasa: The preeminent poet and dramatist of this era, often called the “Shakespeare of India”.
      • Dramas (Natakas):
        • Abhijnanashakuntalam: His masterpiece, narrating the love story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala, praised by figures like Goethe.
        • Malavikagnimitram: A courtly romance about King Agnimitra Shunga and the princess Malavika.
        • Vikramorvashiyam: The mystical love story of King Pururavas and the celestial nymph Urvashi.
      • Epics (Mahakavyas):
        • Raghuvamsha: Chronicles the kings of the Raghu (solar) dynasty, including Rama.
        • Kumarasambhavam: Describes the courtship of Shiva and Parvati, the birth of their son Kartikeya, and his victory over the demon Taraka.
      • Lyrical Poems (Khandakavyas):
        • Ritusamhara: A short poem describing the six seasons and their impact on lovers.
        • Meghadutam (‘The Cloud Messenger’): A poignant poem about a Yaksha exiled from his home who sends a message to his beloved wife via a cloud.
    • Visakhadatta: (c. 4th-5th century CE)
      • Mudrarakshasa: A unique political thriller, devoid of a typical hero-heroine romance. It details the clever machinations of Chanakya to win over Rakshasa, the last minister of the Nandas, to the side of Chandragupta Maurya, thus securing the Mauryan empire.
      • Devichandraguptam: A political drama (surviving only in fragments) about the Gupta king Ramagupta, his defeat by a Shaka ruler, and how his younger brother Chandragupta II rescues the queen Dhruvadevi and ascends the throne.
    • Shudraka: (c. 5th century CE)
      • Mrcchakatika (‘The Little Clay Cart’): A celebrated Prakarana (a type of drama) that provides a realistic and satirical depiction of urban society. Its plot involves a poor but noble Brahmin, Charudatta, and his love for Vasantasena, a wealthy courtesan.
    • Banabhatta: (7th century CE) The court poet of King Harshavardhana of Kannauj.
      • Harshacharita: A biography of his patron, King Harsha, written in ornate prose. It is a valuable historical source, though laudatory in nature.
      • Kadambari: A complex romantic novel, one of the earliest of its kind in the world.
  • Grammar and Lexicography:
    • Panini: (c. 5th century BCE) His Astadhyayi (‘Eight Chapters’) is a seminal work on Sanskrit grammar. It provides a comprehensive and scientific set of rules for the language, so perfect that it fixed the form of Classical Sanskrit.
    • Patanjali: (c. 2nd century BCE) His Mahabhashya is a detailed commentary on Panini’s Astadhyayi, clarifying and elaborating upon its rules.
    • Amarasimha: (c. 4th century CE) A contemporary of Kalidasa, he compiled the Amarakosha, a thesaurus of Sanskrit written in verse, which is a foundational work of Sanskrit lexicography.
  • Scientific Texts:
    • Charaka: (c. 1st-2nd century CE) His Charaka Samhita is a foundational text of Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine. It is a comprehensive work on internal medicine.
    • Sushruta: (c. 6th century BCE, with the text compiled later) His Sushruta Samhita is a foundational text on surgery. It describes over 300 surgical procedures and 120 surgical instruments, and includes pioneering chapters on plastic surgery (rhinoplasty or nose reconstruction), cataract surgery (ophthalmic), and orthopedics.

BUDDHIST LITERATURE

  • The body of Buddhist scriptures is vast and is broadly classified into canonical (considered the word of the Buddha) and non-canonical (commentaries and other writings).
  • Canonical Literature (Tripitaka):
    • Written primarily in the Pali language, these are the earliest collections of Buddhist teachings, collectively known as the Tripitaka or ‘Three Baskets’. They were compiled and arranged in the Buddhist councils held after the Buddha’s death.
    • Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses): Contains the direct teachings, sermons, and dialogues of the Buddha and his disciples. It is divided into five collections (Nikayas), one of which is the Khuddaka Nikaya. The Jataka Tales, which are stories about the previous births of the Buddha, are a part of this Nikaya.
    • Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline): Lays down the rules of conduct and discipline (‘pratimoksha’) for the monks and nuns of the Sangha (monastic community).
    • Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Doctrine): A later compilation, it contains a systematic and scholastic analysis of the Buddha’s teachings, dealing with metaphysics, psychology, and philosophy.
  • Non-Canonical Literature:
    • These works were composed after the Tripitakas and were written in both Pali and Sanskrit, often associated with specific schools of Buddhism.
    • (Pali):
      • Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa: Known as the ‘Sri Lankan Chronicles’, these Pali texts provide a historical account of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and are also an important source for early Indian history, especially the Mauryan period.
      • Milinda Panha (‘Questions of Milinda’): A dialogue between the Buddhist sage Nagasena and the Indo-Greek king Menander (Milinda) on Buddhist philosophy.
      • Therigatha (‘Verses of the Elder Nuns’): A unique and powerful collection of poems attributed to the earliest Buddhist nuns. It is one of the earliest known texts in the world authored by women, describing their social backgrounds and their experiences of spiritual struggle and renunciation.
    • (Sanskrit):
      • Buddhacharita: An epic poem on the life of the Buddha, written by the scholar Ashvaghosha (c. 2nd century CE).
      • Lalitavistara Sutra: A key text of Mahayana Buddhism, it gives a detailed, hagiographical account of the life of Gautama Buddha.
      • Mahavibhasa Shastra: An encyclopedic work of Buddhist philosophy, particularly of the Sarvastivada school, compiled during the fourth Buddhist council under the patronage of Kanishka.

JAIN LITERATURE

  • Language and Compilation: The earliest Jain sacred literature was composed in Ardhamagadhi, a form of Prakrit. This canonical literature, known as the Agama Sutras, is believed to be based on the teachings of Mahavira. The teachings were systematically compiled in the first Jain council at Pataliputra (c. 300 BCE) and finalized in the second Jain council at Vallabhi (c. 5th century CE).
  • Structure of Agamas: The canonical texts include 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnas, 6 Chedasutras, and 4 Mulasutras. The Digambara sect, however, believes that the original Agamas were lost and does not accept the authenticity of the texts compiled at Vallabhi.
  • Content and Uniqueness:
    • Inclusivity: A remarkable feature of Jain literature is its non-sectarian approach to knowledge. Jain authors not only compiled their own doctrines but also recorded and debated the philosophical positions of rival schools like Buddhism, Hinduism, and the Ajivikas, making their texts an invaluable source for understanding the diverse intellectual landscape of ancient India.
    • Historical Source: Jain texts are a rich source for the political and social history of ancient India, particularly for the Mahajanapada period (c. 6th century BCE). The Bhagavati Sutra, one of the Angas, provides detailed information about the 16 Mahajanapadas. They also offer elaborate accounts of the dynasties that ruled in Eastern India, such as the Haryankas, Shishunagas, and Nandas of Magadha.

Prelims Pointers

  • Thangka Painting: Practised in Himalayan regions (Ladakh, Sikkim); Tibetan Buddhist art; painted on cotton/silk; serves as a meditational tool.
  • Madhubani Painting: From Mithilanchal, Bihar; also called Mithila painting; traditionally done by women on walls; uses natural colours mixed with rice flour; themes include mythology and nature; granted GI tag.
  • Kohbar: A style of Madhubani painting created in the nuptial chamber with fertility symbols.
  • Patna Kalam Painting: Also known as Company School; flourished in Patna (18th-20th cent.); hybrid of Mughal and European styles; themes: daily life of common people; practised by male artists.
  • Manjusha Painting: From Bhagalpur, Bihar; also called Angika art; noted for the depiction of snakes; theme based on the folklore of Bihula-Bishari.
  • Patachitra: Traditional cloth-based scroll painting from Odisha; centred around Puri; themes based on Lord Jagannath and Vaishnava cult.
  • Kalighat Painting: Originated in 19th century Calcutta near Kalighat temple; known for social commentary and satirical depictions of the ‘babu’ culture.
  • Warli Painting: Art of the Warli tribe of Maharashtra-Gujarat border; uses basic geometric shapes (circle, triangle, square); white pigment on an ochre background.
  • Pabuji ki Phad: Folk art from Rajasthan; a painted scroll depicting the life of folk deity Pabuji; narrative performed by priest-singers called ‘Bhopas’.
  • Brahmi Script: Mother of most Indian scripts; written left to right; deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.
  • Kharosthi Script: Used in North-West India; written right to left; derived from Aramaic script.
  • Abugida System: Writing system where consonants have an inherent vowel, and other vowels are marked by diacritics.
  • Rig Veda: Oldest Veda; collection of 1028 hymns in 10 Mandalas; priest called ‘Hotra’.
  • Sama Veda: Veda of melodies; root of Indian classical music; priest called ‘Udgatar’.
  • Yajur Veda: Veda of rituals and sacrificial formulas; priest called ‘Adhvaryu’.
  • Atharva Veda: Veda of spells, charms, and medicine.
  • Upanishads: Also known as Vedanta; philosophical texts dealing with Atman and Brahman.
  • Puranas: Post-Vedic texts with 5 characteristics (Pancha-lakshana); 18 Mahapuranas.
  • Astadhyayi: Seminal work on Sanskrit grammar by Panini.
  • Mahabhashya: Commentary on Astadhyayi by Patanjali.
  • Mudrarakshasa: Political drama by Visakhadatta on Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya.
  • Mrcchakatika: Sanskrit play by Shudraka depicting urban society.
  • Sushruta Samhita: Ancient text on surgery, mentioning plastic surgery.
  • Tripitaka: Canonical texts of Buddhism in Pali language; consists of Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma Pitakas.
  • Jataka Tales: Stories of Buddha’s previous births; part of the Sutta Pitaka.
  • Therigatha: A collection of poems by early Buddhist nuns.
  • Agama Sutras: Canonical texts of Jainism, written in Ardhamagadhi (Prakrit).
  • Bhagavati Sutra: Jain text providing detailed accounts of the 16 Mahajanapadas.

Mains Insights

Art as a Mirror of Society and Patronage:

  1. Shift in Patronage, Shift in Theme: The transition from Mughal art to Patna Kalam is a classic example. When artists lost royal Mughal patronage (which favoured courtly, aristocratic themes), they moved to commercial centres like Patna. Their new patrons (British officials) desired documentary-style art, leading to a thematic shift towards the depiction of common people, local crafts, and daily life. This reflects how art is shaped by economic and political forces.
  2. Folk vs. Classical Art: A comparison between a classical form like Thangka and a folk form like Warli reveals different societal functions of art. Thangka is highly codified, iconographic, and serves a specific liturgical purpose within a structured religion (Buddhism). Warli art, on the other hand, is a communal expression, deeply integrated into the life-cycle rituals and daily activities of the tribe, reflecting a worldview centred on nature and community.
  3. Art as Social Commentary: Kalighat painting stands out as a powerful medium of social critique. In the rapidly changing urban milieu of 19th century Calcutta, it moved beyond religious themes to satirize the anglicized elite and comment on social scandals. This demonstrates the potential of art to act as a voice for the subaltern and a critique of contemporary society.

Evolution of Indian Intellectual Thought (Vedas to Upanishads):

  1. From Ritual to Philosophy: The Vedic corpus shows a clear intellectual evolution. The early Samhitas (especially Rig Veda) are focused on sacrificial rituals (‘karma kanda’) to appease deities for material gains. The later texts, especially the Upanishads (‘jnana kanda’), shift the focus inward. The central questions are no longer about performing the right ritual, but about understanding the nature of reality (Brahman), the self (Atman), and the means to liberation (Moksha).
  2. Cause of the Shift: This transition can be attributed to several factors: the stabilization of society allowing for more philosophical speculation, a reaction against the excessive ritualism and monopoly of the priestly class, and the rise of new urban centres and kingdoms in the Gangetic plains which fostered new intellectual currents, also giving rise to Buddhism and Jainism.

Literature as a Historical Source:

  1. Corroboration and Context: Literary sources like the Puranas, Jain, and Buddhist texts are invaluable for history writing, but must be used critically. While the Puranas provide dynastic lists (e.g., for the Mauryas, Guptas), the information is often embedded in mythology. Jain texts like the Bhagavati Sutra provide a contemporary perspective on the Mahajanapadas, which can be corroborated with Buddhist texts and archaeological evidence.
  2. Social History: Secular literature offers a rich tapestry of social life. Shudraka’s Mrcchakatika is not just a play but a window into the urban society of its time, with its diverse characters—courtesans, thieves, gamblers, and merchants. Kalidasa’s works reflect the aesthetic and cultural ideals of the Gupta court. Banabhatta’s Harshacharita provides insights into the polity and court life of the 7th century.
  3. Inclusivity and Perspective: The existence of texts like the Therigatha is profoundly significant. It provides a rare female perspective from the ancient world, challenging the predominantly male-centric narrative of religious and social history. Similarly, the Jain tradition of documenting rival philosophies offers a more holistic and less biased view of the intellectual debates of ancient India.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC Prelims 2020)

    1. Parivrajaka — Renunciant and Wanderer
    2. Shramana — Priest with a high status
    3. Upasaka — Lay follower of Buddhism Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (b) Shramana refers to ascetics/monks in traditions like Buddhism and Jainism who renounce worldly life; they were often seen as rivals to the Brahmanical priests, not as priests with high status within that system. Parivrajaka (wanderer) and Upasaka (lay follower) are correctly defined.

  2. The well-known painting “Bani Thani” belongs to the: (UPSC Prelims 2018) (a) Bundi school (b) Jaipur school (c) Kangra school (d) Kishangarh school

    Answer: (d) Bani Thani is an iconic painting from the Kishangarh school of Rajasthan, depicting a singer and poet during the reign of Raja Samant Singh. Though not directly from the summary, it is a frequently asked topic related to Indian paintings.

  3. Which one of the following is not a part of early Jaina literature? (UPSC Prelims 2022) (a) Therigatha (b) Acarangasutra (c) Sutrakritanga (d) Brihatkalpasutra

    Answer: (a) Therigatha is a famous Buddhist text, part of the Pali Canon, containing verses of elder nuns. The other three are well-known Jain texts (part of the Agamas).

  4. With reference to Indian history, who of the following were known as “Kulah-Daran”? (UPSC Prelims 2022) (a) Arab merchants (b) Qalandars (c) Persian calligraphists (d) Sayyids

    Answer: (d) This question tests medieval history but is related to cultural terms. Kulah-Daran refers to the Sayyids who wore a pointed cap (Kulah). This type of question highlights the need to know specific cultural terminologies.

  5. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC Prelims 2019) Tradition — State

    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
    3. Thang-Ta dance — Sikkim Which of the pairs given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only

    Answer: (b) Thang-Ta is a martial art form from Manipur, not Sikkim. Chapchar Kut festival of Mizoram and Khongjom Parba ballad of Manipur are correctly matched. This shows the UPSC’s focus on matching cultural forms with their regions of origin.

Mains

  1. The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art and history. Discuss. (UPSC Mains 2020, GS Paper I)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Briefly define rock-cut architecture and its prevalence from the Mauryan period (Barabar caves) to the Rashtrakutas (Kailasa temple, Ellora).
    • Source of Art History: Explain how it shows the evolution of architectural styles (from simple chaityas and viharas to complex monolithic temples), sculptural art (panels at Ajanta, Ellora depicting Jataka tales, Hindu myths), and painting techniques (Ajanta frescoes).
    • Source of Political and Dynastic History: Mention inscriptions found in these caves which provide information about patrons (kings like Ashoka, Satavahanas, Vakatakas), dynasties, and their territorial extent. The choice of location and scale (e.g., Ellora) reflects the power and prestige of the ruling dynasty.
    • Source of Religious History: Discuss how the caves are a testament to the religious harmony and patronage of different faiths. Sites like Ellora have Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain caves existing side-by-side, reflecting the syncretic culture of the time. They also show the evolution of iconography and worship practices within these religions.
    • Source of Social and Economic History: Depictions of common people, traders, foreigners (in Ajanta paintings), and details of costumes, ornaments, and tools provide insights into the social life and trade networks of the period.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by summarizing that rock-cut architecture is a durable and rich “stone library” that offers invaluable, multi-faceted insights into early India where textual sources are often scarce or biased.

  2. Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction of the history of India. (UPSC Mains 2018, GS Paper I)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Mention that foreign travelogues provide a crucial external perspective that complements and sometimes challenges indigenous sources for Indian history.
    • Chinese Travellers (e.g., Fa-Hien, Xuanzang, I-Tsing):
      • Importance: Primarily came for Buddhist studies. Their accounts are invaluable for understanding the state of Buddhism, monastic life, and famous universities like Nalanda. Xuanzang’s detailed account of Harsha’s reign is a primary source. They also provide details on social customs, the caste system, law and order, and economic conditions.
      • Limitations: Their perspective is often coloured by their Buddhist faith (hagiographical), and they may misinterpret certain Indian customs.
    • Arab Travellers (e.g., Al-Masudi, Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta):
      • Importance: Came as traders, geographers, and scholars. Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is a scientific and comprehensive study of Indian society, religion, philosophy, and sciences during the early 11th century. Ibn Battuta’s Rihla provides a vivid eyewitness account of the Delhi Sultanate under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, covering the court, administration, and socio-economic conditions.
      • Limitations: Their accounts can be subjective, based on their personal experiences, and sometimes contain generalizations. They focus more on the ruling elite and urban centres.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that while these accounts have their biases, their meticulous observations on aspects often ignored in Indian courtly chronicles make them indispensable for a holistic reconstruction of India’s past.

  3. Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss. (UPSC Mains 2018, GS Paper I)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define Indian art heritage, encompassing both tangible (monuments, paintings, sculptures) and intangible (performing arts, crafts) forms. State the thesis that its protection is an urgent necessity.
    • Why is it the need of the moment? (Threats):
      • Physical Degradation: Neglect, pollution, improper restoration, and natural disasters affecting monuments and artefacts.
      • Illicit Trafficking: Smuggling of antiques and art objects to international markets.
      • Fading Intangible Heritage: Traditional folk arts, languages, and crafts are dying due to lack of patronage, globalization, and migration.
      • Lack of Awareness: Public apathy and vandalism pose a significant threat.
      • Developmental Pressures: Infrastructure projects often endanger heritage sites.
    • Why is it important to safeguard? (Significance):
      • Identity and Pride: Art heritage is a link to our past and a source of national identity.
      • Economic Potential: Promotes tourism, generates employment for artisans and local communities.
      • Source of Knowledge: It is a repository of history, culture, and traditional wisdom.
      • Soft Power: India’s rich cultural heritage enhances its global standing.
    • Measures for Safeguarding: Mention roles of ASI, National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities, schemes like HRIDAY, PRASAD, GI tags for traditional crafts, and the need for community participation and technology (digital preservation).
    • Conclusion: Reiterate that safeguarding art heritage is not just about preserving the past but is a crucial investment in the cultural, social, and economic future of the nation.

  4. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate. (UPSC Mains 2016, GS Paper I)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Briefly describe the Stupa as a Buddhist commemorative monument and its basic structure (anda, harmika, chhatri, vedika, torana). State that the art on early stupas (like Sanchi, Bharhut) skillfully integrated popular art forms to convey complex Buddhist doctrines.
    • Depiction of Folk Motifs and Narratives:
      • Mention the use of Yakshas, Yakshis, Nagas, and other nature spirits on railings and gateways. These were pre-existing folk deities integrated into the Buddhist framework as protectors of the faith.
      • Show how Jataka tales (narratives of Buddha’s past lives) were carved extensively. These stories were drawn from popular folklore and were easily understood by the common people.
      • Describe the use of symbols from nature like the lotus (purity), elephant (Buddha’s conception), and wheel (Dharma).
    • Expounding Buddhist Ideals:
      • Aniconic Representation: Explain that in early Stupa-art, the Buddha was never depicted in human form. His presence was indicated through symbols: an empty throne (sovereignty), Bodhi tree (enlightenment), footprints (his presence), and the stupa itself (parinirvana). This symbolized the transcendent, ineffable nature of the enlightened one.
      • Narrative Panels: The Jataka tales were not just stories; they illustrated key Buddhist virtues (paramitas) like compassion, sacrifice, and morality. The continuous narrative style on panels guided the devotee in a process of learning and circumambulation.
      • Gateways (Toranas): The elaborate carvings on the toranas acted as a visual scripture, guiding the lay follower from the mundane world outside to the sacred space within, symbolizing the path to enlightenment.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that early stupa-art was a genius act of communication. It used a familiar visual language of folk art and storytelling to make the profound and abstract ideals of Buddhism accessible, relatable, and popular among the masses.

  5. What are the main principles of the Puranic religion? What was its contribution to the enrichment of Indian culture? (A similar question on Puranic traditions and their influence could be framed)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define Puranic religion as the form of Hinduism that developed in the post-Vedic era, characterized by its focus on the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva), avatars, idol worship, pilgrimages (tirthas), and vows (vratas), as codified in the 18 Mahapuranas.
    • Main Principles of Puranic Religion:
      • Theism and Bhakti: Shift from the abstract deities of the Vedas to personal, accessible gods. The path of devotion (Bhakti) became the primary means of salvation, open to all varnas and women.
      • Trinity (Trimurti): The concept of Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver), and Shiva (destroyer) as different facets of one supreme reality was crystallized.
      • Doctrine of Avatars: The idea that Vishnu descends to earth in various forms (avatars) like Rama and Krishna to restore dharma became central to Vaishnavism.
      • Idol Worship and Temple Culture: Worship became centred on images (murtis) housed in temples, which became major social, economic, and cultural centres.
      • Synthesis and Assimilation: Puranic Hinduism absorbed numerous local cults, deities, and folk traditions, creating a synthetic and inclusive religious fabric.
    • Contribution to the Enrichment of Indian Culture:
      • Unification: It provided a common cultural and religious framework across the diverse regions of India through shared myths, legends, and pilgrimage sites.
      • Literature and Language: The Puranas, written in simple Sanskrit, made complex philosophical ideas accessible to the masses and influenced the development of vernacular literature.
      • Art and Architecture: Puranic myths provided endless themes for temple sculptures, classical dance forms (like Bharatanatyam), painting traditions (like Patachitra), and theatre.
      • Festivals and Rituals: It institutionalized numerous festivals like Diwali, Holi, and Durga Puja, which are integral to Indian cultural life today.
      • Ethical Values: The stories of gods, goddesses, and heroes in the Puranas disseminated moral and ethical values (dharma) throughout society.
    • Conclusion: The Puranic religion was instrumental in transforming the esoteric, ritual-heavy Vedic tradition into the popular, devotional, and multifaceted Hinduism we know today, profoundly shaping the cultural landscape of India.

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