Art and Culture Notes 06

Imperial Delhi Sultanate Architecture

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 AD)

The initial phase of Sultanate architecture, often termed the Mamluk style, was marked by expediency and the assertion of a new political order. The early rulers repurposed existing structures, a practice known as spoliation, to quickly establish Islamic places of worship and symbols of power.

• Conversion of Existing Structures: The primary focus was on converting Hindu and Jain temples into mosques. This was done by dismantling the temples and re-using their carved columns, lintels, and ceilings. The garbha-griha (sanctum sanctorum) was often demolished and a mihrab (prayer niche indicating the direction of Mecca) and a mimbar (pulpit) were installed. The courtyards were enclosed by erecting a screen of arches in front.
• Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, Delhi: Literally meaning ‘Might of Islam’, this mosque was erected by Qutb-ud-din Aibak starting in 1193 AD on the site of Rai Pithora’s citadel. According to inscriptions, it was built using materials from 27 demolished Hindu and Jain temples. The initial structure used corbelled arches (arches made by horizontally placing stones, not true arches) and showcased a fascinating blend of Islamic geometric patterns with Hindu motifs like the kalasha (pot), lotus, and bell-and-chain designs on the reused pillars.
• Qutb Minar, Delhi: This iconic victory tower, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was conceived by Qutb-ud-din Aibak around 1199 AD, likely in imitation of the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan. It was dedicated to the Sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. Its construction spanned several reigns:
  • Qutb-ud-din Aibak: Constructed the first storey.
  • Shams-ud-din Iltutmish: Added three more storeys in 1220 AD.
  • Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1369 AD): Repaired the minar after it was struck by lightning, replacing the top storey with two new ones, using marble and red sandstone.
  • Sikander Lodi (1503 AD): Undertook further repairs and restoration. The minar is characterized by projecting balconies supported by stalactite-like brackets, and bands of intricate calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran interspersed with floral motifs.
• Arhai-din-ka-Jhopra, Ajmer: This structure, reputedly built in two and a half days, was commissioned by Qutb-ud-din Aibak. It was converted from a Sanskrit college and a Jain temple complex. Similar to the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, it features a screen of seven arches decorated with Kufic and Naksh scripts, erected in front of a hall whose ceiling rests on numerous reused temple pillars.
• Material: The predominant material used during this phase was red sandstone, which was locally available and easy to carve.

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)

The Khilji period marks a significant shift towards a more refined and scientifically constructed architectural style, often referred to as the Seljuk style. This was a departure from the earlier phase of improvisation and conversion.

• Introduction of True Arch and Dome: This was the most significant contribution of the Khilji period. The true arch, constructed using a series of wedge-shaped stones (voussoirs) with a keystone at the center, allowed for the spanning of larger spaces. The true dome provided a grand and spacious interior. This architectural technology, based on scientific principles, replaced the earlier, less stable corbelled method.
• Alai Darwaza, Delhi: Built by Alauddin Khilji in 1311 AD as an entrance gateway to the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, this is considered the first building in India to employ true Islamic architectural principles. It features a perfectly symmetrical design, a true dome, and pointed horseshoe arches. The decoration is a masterpiece of red sandstone and white marble inlays, with intricate geometric patterns (arabesque) and calligraphic inscriptions, avoiding any representation of living beings, in line with Islamic aniconic traditions.
• Siri Fort: In 1303, Alauddin Khilji built the second city of Delhi, Siri, primarily as a garrison town to protect against Mongol invasions. Although mostly in ruins, its walls demonstrate the robust military architecture of the period. He also constructed the Hauz-i-Alai (Hauz Khas), a large water reservoir for the city’s inhabitants.
• Material: Red sandstone remained the primary building material, but it was used with greater finesse and often combined with white marble for decorative emphasis.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD)

Tughlaq architecture reflects the political and economic turmoil of the period. It is characterized by austerity, sobriety, and a strong, fortress-like appearance, a stark contrast to the ornamentation of the Khiljis. This period is often described by architectural historian Percy Brown as one of “puritanical simplicity”.

• Crisis Period Features: The rulers, particularly Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq and Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, were preoccupied with military campaigns and faced economic constraints. This led to a more utilitarian and less decorative style.
• Batter Effect: A defining feature was the introduction of sloping or ‘battering’ walls. This technique, known as the batter effect, provided greater strength and stability to the structures, giving them a fortress-like, imposing appearance.
• Material Change: Red sandstone was largely replaced by locally available and cheaper grey sandstone and quartzite rubble, often finished with a thick layer of plaster. This was a pragmatic choice reflecting the economic pressures on the empire.
• Four-Centred Arch: They introduced the four-centred arch, which was stronger and wider, making it suitable for their massive structures.
• City Building and Forts: The Tughlaqs were prolific builders of cities and forts.
  • Tughlaqabad: Founded by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, this massive fortified city is a prime example of Tughlaq military architecture, with its high battlements and battering walls. His tomb, located opposite the fort, is a simple but powerful structure of red sandstone and marble.
  • Jahanpanah: Built by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, it was the fourth city of Delhi, intended to enclose the area between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri.
  • Firoz Shah Kotla: Firoz Shah Tughlaq, a great builder, founded the city of Firozabad (now Firoz Shah Kotla). He is credited with building numerous mosques, canals, and public buildings. His tomb in Hauz Khas complex is another example of austere Tughlaq architecture.

Sayyid (1414-1451) and Lodi (1451-1526) Dynasties

This period saw a revival of architectural activity, primarily focused on tombs. While the grandeur of the Khilji and Tughlaq periods was not replicated due to a weaker central authority, significant innovations were introduced.

• Sayyid Period:
  • Octagonal Tombs: The Sayyids developed the octagonal tomb design, typically reserved for rulers (e.g., Tomb of Mubarak Shah Sayyid, Tomb of Muhammad Shah Sayyid in Delhi’s Lodi Gardens). These tombs are characterized by a central octagonal chamber surrounded by a veranda with arched openings.
  • Decoration: They introduced decorative elements like guldastas (lotus bud finials on the roof) and used blue-enamelled tiles to add colour and vibrancy to the otherwise sombre grey stone structures.
• Lodi Period:
  • Double Dome: The most important architectural innovation of the Lodis was the introduction of the double dome. This consisted of an inner dome to provide a proportionate ceiling for the interior chamber and a higher, grander outer dome for a more imposing external appearance. The gap between the two layers improved the structural stability and insulation. The tomb of Sikander Lodi (1517 AD) in Lodi Gardens is the first surviving example of a double dome in India.
  • Gardens and Verandahs: The Lodis were the first to place tombs within large, enclosed gardens, a concept that would later be perfected by the Mughals in the form of the charbagh. They also incorporated the Indian concept of the verandah into their buildings, enhancing their functionality.
  • Square Tombs: Alongside octagonal tombs for royalty, the square-plan tomb continued to be built for high-ranking nobles (e.g., Bara Gumbad in Lodi Gardens). These were simpler in design, often lacking a surrounding verandah.

Provincial Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate

As the central authority of the Delhi Sultanate weakened, regional kingdoms developed their own distinct architectural styles, blending Islamic principles with local traditions, materials, and climatic conditions.

• Bengal Architecture (Gaur and Pandua):
  • Materials: Characterized by the extensive use of locally available brick and black stone (basalt).
  • Features: The most distinctive feature was the sloping ‘Bangla’ roof, an adaptation of the traditional Bengali hut’s curved roof, designed to efficiently drain off heavy monsoon rain. They also used decorative terracotta tiles. Buildings were typically large in expanse but had relatively low heights.
  • Examples: Adina Masjid at Pandua (one of the largest mosques in the subcontinent), Kadam Rasul Mosque at Gaur.
• Jaunpur Architecture (Sharqi Style):
  • Features: The Sharqi style is noted for its monumental gateways or propylons, which dominated the facade of the mosques. A unique characteristic was the complete absence of minarets. Instead, the massive central pylon of the prayer hall served as the focal point.
  • Examples: Atala Masjid (c. 1408), Jama Masjid of Jaunpur.
• Malwa Architecture (Mandu):
  • Features: Often considered the most refined provincial style, Malwa architecture is renowned for its elegance and harmony with its natural surroundings. Key features include the use of a variety of coloured stones and marbles, large arched windows for light and cross-ventilation, beautifully proportioned staircases, and high plinths. Raised pavilions were strategically placed to offer panoramic views of the Narmada valley.
  • Examples: Jahaz Mahal (Ship Palace), Hindola Mahal (Swinging Palace) with its distinctive battered walls, Rani Rupmati’s Pavilion, and Ashrafi Mahal in Mandu.
• Gujarat Architecture:
  • Features: This style is remarkable for its synthesis with the indigenous Hindu and Jain architectural traditions of the region. It prominently features intricate stone carving (jali work or screen work), the use of slender, minaret-like turrets, stone lintels over doorways (trabeate style), and ornate brackets. The Sidi Saiyyed Mosque in Ahmedabad is world-famous for its exquisite tree-of-life jalis.
  • Examples: Jama Masjid and Sidi Saiyyed Mosque in Ahmedabad, Tin Darwaza, Sarkhej Roza complex.
• Bijapur Architecture (Deccan Style):
  • Features: Developed under the Adil Shahi dynasty, this style is known for its originality and technical brilliance. Its most prominent features include a highly bulbous, almost spherical dome with a petal-like motif at its base, decorative cornices, and the use of a three-arched facade where only the central arch is functional.
  • Examples: Gol Gumbaz, the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, famous for its massive dome (second largest pre-modern dome in the world) and its ‘whispering gallery’. Other examples include Ibrahim Rauza and the Jama Masjid of Bijapur.

Mughal Architecture

Early Phase (Babur and Humayun)

The founders of the Mughal empire had limited time and resources to undertake large-scale architectural projects, but they laid the groundwork for the later magnificent style.

• Babur (1526-1530): Being preoccupied with consolidating his empire, Babur’s contributions were modest. He had a keen aesthetic sense, particularly for gardens. He is credited with building two mosques: one at Panipat (Kabuli Bagh Mosque) and another at Sambhal (Jami Masjid), both following the Timurid style but lacking significant architectural innovation.
• Humayun (1530-1540 & 1555-1556): Humayun’s reign was politically unstable. He laid the foundation for a new city in Delhi named Dinpanah (‘Refuge of Religion’), but his exile prevented its completion. The structures built by Sher Shah Suri within this complex (like the Qila-i-Kuhna mosque and Sher Mandal) are often studied alongside early Mughal architecture.
• Humayun’s Tomb (c. 1565-1572): This monument, commissioned by his senior widow, Haji Begum (Bega Begum), and possibly supported by Akbar, is the first grand architectural masterpiece of the Mughal era. It is a synthesis of Persian and Indian traditions and a precursor to the Taj Mahal.
  • Architect: Designed by the Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas.
  • Features: It was the first use of the Charbagh (a four-quadrant garden) in a tomb setting in India. It masterfully combines red sandstone with white marble for structural and decorative purposes, respectively. It established the grand tradition of the double dome in Mughal architecture and features a symmetrical layout built on a high plinth. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1993.

Akbar’s Period (1556-1605)

Akbar’s reign was a period of political stability, economic prosperity, and religious tolerance, all of which are reflected in his eclectic and syncretic architectural style. He consciously fused Persian, Timurid, and indigenous Indian (especially Rajput and Gujarati) architectural elements.

• Agra Fort: Akbar began the reconstruction of the old Lodhi fort in Agra in 1565, using red sandstone on a massive scale. While many of his original buildings were later replaced by Shah Jahan, the Jahangiri Mahal survives as a fine example of the fusion of Hindu (Rajput) and Islamic styles, featuring ornate brackets, balconies (jharokhas), and flat ceilings.
• Fatehpur Sikri: Between 1571 and 1585, Akbar built his new capital city, Fatehpur Sikri, near the hospice of the Sufi saint Shaikh Salim Chishti, in whose honour it was built. This complex is a masterpiece of architectural planning and a testament to Akbar’s vision of a syncretic culture.
  • Buland Darwaza: This monumental gateway (54 metres high) was added in 1601 to commemorate Akbar’s victory in Gujarat. It is noted for its scale and the use of a half-dome portal (Tudor Arch), a feature of Timurid architecture.
  • Panch Mahal: A unique five-storeyed columnar structure, with each floor receding in size. It is entirely trabeate (post-and-lintel) in its construction, resembling an ancient Indian Buddhist vihara. It was likely used by the court ladies.
  • Tomb of Salim Chishti: A serene marble structure within the courtyard of the Jama Masjid. It is celebrated for its exquisite and delicate marble jali (screen) work. It was originally built with red sandstone but was later encased in marble by Jahangir.
  • Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience): A simple square building on the outside, its interior contains a magnificent central pillar with a circular platform. This pillar, with its 36 serpentine brackets, supported Akbar’s throne, from which four diagonal bridges led to the corners. This design is often interpreted as a symbol of Akbar’s dominion over the four quarters and his concept of the divine king.
  • Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience): A large courtyard complex where the emperor would address the public and dispense justice.
  • Jodha Bai’s Palace, Birbal’s House: These residential buildings show a strong influence of Gujarati and Rajput architecture, with features like sloping eaves, ornate brackets, balconies, and courtyards.
  • Ibadat Khana (House of Worship): A hall where Akbar held religious debates with scholars of different faiths (Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, Zoroastrianism). This intellectual churning led to his formulation of a syncretic spiritual doctrine, Din-i-Ilahi, promoting the idea of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace).
• Govind Dev Temple, Vrindavan: An example of Akbar’s patronage extending beyond Islamic architecture. The construction of this grand temple by Raja Man Singh of Amber was generously supported by Akbar, showcasing his policy of religious tolerance.

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Prelims Pointers

• Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque: First mosque built in Delhi, constructed using spolia from 27 Hindu and Jain temples.
• Qutb Minar: Dedicated to Sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. Construction started by Aibak, completed by Iltutmish, repaired by Firoz Shah Tughlaq and Sikander Lodi.
• Arhai-din-ka-Jhopra: Located in Ajmer, converted from a Sanskrit college.
• True Arch and Dome: First introduced in India during the Khilji Dynasty.
• Alai Darwaza: Built by Alauddin Khilji, it is the first structure in India featuring a true dome and true arch. It uses a horseshoe-shaped arch.
• Siri Fort: Built by Alauddin Khilji to defend against Mongol attacks.
• Batter Effect: Sloping walls for greater strength, a key feature of Tughlaq architecture.
• Tughlaqabad Fort: Built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.
• Double Dome: An architectural feature introduced by the Lodi Dynasty. First surviving example is the Tomb of Sikander Lodi.
• Octagonal Tombs: A feature of the Sayyid and Lodi periods, generally reserved for royalty.
• Bangla Roof: Curved, sloping roof characteristic of the Bengal provincial style.
• Jaunpur (Sharqi) Style: Characterized by huge propylon gateways and the absence of minarets.
• Malwa (Mandu) Architecture: Known for large windows, coloured stones, and picturesque pavilions like Jahaz Mahal and Hindola Mahal.
• Gujarat Style: Famous for its synthesis with Hindu-Jain traditions, especially intricate jali work (e.g., Sidi Saiyyed Mosque).
• Bijapur (Adil Shahi) Style: Noted for its bulbous domes with a petal-like base and the Gol Gumbaz, which has the second-largest dome in the world.
• Charbagh: A four-quadrant garden style, first used in India at Humayun’s Tomb.
• Humayun’s Tomb: A precursor to the Taj Mahal, built with red sandstone and white marble, and featuring the first use of a full double dome on a monumental scale.
• Fatehpur Sikri: Capital city built by Akbar, a blend of Persian and various Indian architectural styles.
• Buland Darwaza: Built by Akbar to commemorate his victory over Gujarat.
• Panch Mahal: A five-storeyed, pillared structure in Fatehpur Sikri based on the trabeate principle.
• Tomb of Salim Chishti: Located in Fatehpur Sikri, famous for its marble jali work.
• Sulh-i-Kul: Policy of ‘universal peace’ promoted by Akbar.

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Mains Insights

The Evolution of Indo-Islamic Architecture

Indo-Islamic architecture is not merely an imported style but a dynamic evolution reflecting the changing political, economic, and cultural landscape of medieval India.

1. Phase of Confrontation and Adaptation (Slave Dynasty):

   • Cause: The immediate need of the new rulers to establish places of worship and symbols of victory. Lack of time and skilled artisans familiar with Islamic architectural techniques.
   • Effect: Led to the practice of spoliation (using materials from demolished temples). This resulted in a hybrid style where Islamic layouts (courtyard, prayer hall) were constructed using indigenous Indian elements (carved pillars, corbelled arches). This phase represents a pragmatic adaptation rather than a planned synthesis.
   • Historiography: Some colonial historians like H.M. Elliot viewed this as an act of iconoclastic fury. Modern historians like Satish Chandra and Catherine Asher see it as a political act of asserting dominance and a practical solution to the immediate need for building materials.

2. Phase of Confidence and Innovation (Khilji Dynasty):

   • Cause: Political consolidation and economic prosperity under Alauddin Khilji allowed for greater investment in architecture. Increased interaction with Central Asia brought in new technologies and artisans.
   • Effect: Shift from improvisation to scientifically planned structures. Introduction of the true arch and dome (voussoir technique) which allowed for larger, more spacious, and structurally sound buildings like the Alai Darwaza. This marks the true beginning of a distinct “Sultanate” style.

3. Phase of Austerity and Pragmatism (Tughlaq Dynasty):

   • Cause: Economic strain due to Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s failed experiments, famine, and constant military threats.
   • Effect: Architecture became massive, austere, and fortress-like. Decorative elements were minimized. Cheaper materials like grey sandstone and rubble were used. Features like the ‘batter effect’ were introduced for strength, reflecting the insecure and militaristic character of the state.

4. Phase of Regional Efflorescence (Provincial Kingdoms):

   • Cause: The decline of the central Sultanate’s power led to the rise of independent regional kingdoms.
   • Effect: Rulers patronized architecture to legitimize their rule and express regional identity. This resulted in diverse architectural styles that blended Islamic conventions with strong local traditions, materials, and climatic adaptations (e.g., Bangla roof in Bengal, trabeate forms in Gujarat). This demonstrates the decentralization of cultural patronage.

5. Phase of Grand Synthesis (Mughal-Akbar):

   • Cause: Akbar’s stable and prosperous empire, coupled with his personal interest in art and his policy of religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul).
   • Effect: A deliberate and conscious fusion of Persian, Central Asian, and various Indian regional styles (Rajput, Gujarati). Fatehpur Sikri is the ultimate embodiment of this syncretism, where trabeate (Indian) and arcuate (Islamic) forms co-exist harmoniously. The architecture was a tool of state policy, projecting an image of an inclusive and universal empire.

Architecture as a Political Statement

• The Qutb Minar served as a qutb (axis or pole) of Islam and a victory tower, symbolizing the establishment of a new political and religious order.
• The fortress-cities of the Tughlaqs (Tughlaqabad, Firozabad) were statements of military might and the defensive posture of the Sultanate.
• The grandeur of Fatehpur Sikri, with its diverse architectural influences, was a physical manifestation of Akbar’s imperial authority and his vision of a united, multicultural empire. The central pillar in the Diwan-i-Khas is a powerful symbol of the emperor as the axis mundi (centre of the world).

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