Art and Culture Notes 12

The Origins of Indian Classical Music

• Vedic Foundations: The genesis of Indian classical music is deeply rooted in the Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE). The Vedas, particularly the Sama Veda, are considered the primary source. Music was not for entertainment but was an integral part of religious ritual and sacrifice (yajna).
  • The Udgatr Priest: Within the Vedic priestly hierarchy, a specialized priest known as the Udgatr (or Udgata) was responsible for the melodic chanting of hymns. Their role was crucial for the correct invocation of deities.
  • Sama Veda: The Sama Veda is essentially the Rig Veda set to melody. The word ‘Saman’ itself translates to melody or song. The hymns (richas) from the Rig Veda were arranged and notated with musical tones to be sung during Soma sacrifices. This marks the transition from simple recitation to structured musical chanting. While the summary mentions “16 thousand Raag and Ragini,” this is a later mythological or symbolic number; the early Vedic music was based on a limited number of tones, typically descending in scale.
• Post-Vedic Developments:
  • Gandharva Veda: Following the primary Vedas, several specialized texts known as Upavedas were composed. The Gandharva Veda, an Upaveda attached to the Sama Veda, is a comprehensive treatise on the science of music. It delves into the theory of swaras (notes), ragas (melodic frameworks), and talas (rhythmic cycles), establishing a formal rulebook for musical practice.
  • Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra: Dated between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the Natya Shastra by Bharata Muni is the most authoritative and ancient text codifying the performing arts in India. While its scope includes drama (natya) and dance (nritya), a significant portion is dedicated to music (gandharva). It systematically explains concepts like:
    • Swara (Notes): It establishes the seven-note scale (saptak).
    • Shruti (Microtones): It details the concept of 22 shrutis (microtonal intervals) within an octave, from which the seven swaras are derived. This provides Indian music with its characteristic subtlety and melodic richness.
    • Murchhana (Scales): It discusses the system of creating scales by shifting the tonic note.
    • Jati and Raga: It lays the groundwork for the concept of raga through the discussion of jati-gayan.

The Core Elements of Indian Music

Indian classical music is built upon a sophisticated framework of three fundamental elements: Swara, Raga, and Tala.

1. Swara (Note): This refers to a musical note or a specific pitch.

   • Heptatonic Nature: Indian music is fundamentally heptatonic, meaning it is based on a scale of seven primary notes, known as Shuddha Swaras (pure notes).
   • The Saptak (Seven Swaras):
     • Sa - Shadja (Tonic)
     • Re - Rishabha
     • Ga - Gandhara
     • Ma - Madhyama
     • Pa - Panchama
     • Dha - Dhaivata
     • Ni - Nishada
   • These notes are comparable to the Western solfege system (Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti). Beyond these seven pure notes, there are also five altered (vikrit) notes, creating a full 12-note chromatic scale.
   • Shruti: The swara is not the smallest unit of sound. That distinction belongs to the shruti, a microtonal interval which is the smallest gradation of pitch that a human ear can discern. The ancient texts define 22 such shrutis in an octave. Each swara is composed of a specific number of shrutis, giving each note a unique character. For example, Shadja (Sa) and Pancham (Pa) are considered immutable and have a fixed pitch, while other notes can be altered.

2. Raga (Melodic Framework): This is the heart of Indian music. It is more than just a scale; it is a melodic blueprint for improvisation.

   • Definition: A raga is created by a specific combination of swaras arranged in ascending (aroha) and descending (avaroha) orders. Each raga has a unique set of rules: certain notes are dominant (vadi), some are secondary (samvadi), and some may be omitted or used in a specific manner (vakra or zigzag motion).
   • Structure: A raga must have a minimum of five notes (swaras) to be classified. Based on the number of notes, ragas are categorized as:
     • Odava Raga: Pentatonic, using 5 notes. (e.g., Raga Bhupali)
     • Shadava Raga: Hexatonic, using 6 notes. (e.g., Raga Marwa)
     • Sampurna Raga: Heptatonic, using all 7 notes. (e.g., Raga Yaman)
   • Each raga is also associated with a specific time of day, season, and mood (rasa), creating a profound emotional and psychological impact.

3. Tala (Rhythmic Cycle): Tala provides the rhythmic foundation for the music.

   • Definition: It is a cyclical arrangement of beats, organized into sections (vibhags). Each cycle has a specific number of beats (matras). The first beat of the cycle is called the sam and is often emphasized.
   • Popular Rhythmic Cycles: While the summary lists cycles by numbers, they are traditionally named. The classification based on the number of beats in a sub-division (laghu) is more prominent in Carnatic music (Jatis). Common Talas in Hindustani music include Teentaal (16 beats), Dadra (6 beats), and Keherwa (8 beats). The terms provided in the summary relate to the Jatis of Carnatic Tala:
     • Tisra Jati: 3 beats per unit.
     • Chaturasra Jati: 4 beats per unit.
     • Khanda Jati: 5 beats per unit.
     • Misra Jati: 7 beats per unit.
     • Sankeerna Jati: 9 beats per unit. (Note: The summary incorrectly lists 6 and 7; the correct values are 7 and 9).

The Great Divide: Hindustani and Carnatic Music

Initially, Indian classical music was a single, unified system. The divergence began around the 13th-14th centuries during the Delhi Sultanate period.

• Cause of Divergence: The primary catalyst was the significant Turco-Persian cultural influence in North India. The courts of the Delhi Sultans and later the Mughals became patrons of music, leading to a synthesis of Indian traditions with Persian and Arabic elements. The South, largely insulated from this direct influence, continued to develop the classical tradition along its indigenous trajectory.
• Time-Season-Mood Theory (Raga-Ragini System): A key development in the North was the codification of the Raga-Ragini system, which personified Ragas as male and Raginis as their consorts. This system, popularized by texts like the Sangita-Darpana of Damodara Mishra (c. 1625), strongly associated each raga with a specific time of day, season, and emotional mood (rasa).

  Raga	Time	Season	Mood (Rasa)
  Megha	Late Night / Early Morning	Rainy (Varsha)	Courage (Veera) / Seriousness (Gambhirya)
  Deepak	Night	Summer (Grishma)	Compassion (Karuna) / Pathos
  Bhairavi	Morning	Autumn (Sharad)	Devotion (Bhakti) / Awe (Adbhuta)
  Hindol	Morning (First part of day)	Spring (Vasant)	Love (Shringara)
  Shri	Evening	Winter (Hemant)	Love (Shringara) / Gladness (Harsha)

• Amir Khusrau (1253-1325): A versatile genius in the court of the Delhi Sultans, Amir Khusrau played a pivotal role in this synthesis. He is credited with creating new ragas (e.g., Yaman Kalyan, Sazgiri) and new musical forms like Qawwali and Tarana. He is also believed to have invented or modified instruments like the Sitar and Tabla, which became central to Hindustani music. His work cemented the divergence, creating a distinct Hindustani style.

Hindustani Classical Music: Major Forms

• Dhrupad:

  • Origin and Nature: The oldest surviving form of Hindustani classical music, its name derives from Dhruva-pada (fixed verse). It originated in ancient temple music traditions and evolved into a courtly art form. It is majestic, spiritual, and highly structured, demanding immense breath control and vocal power.
  • Structure: A Dhrupad performance begins with a lengthy, meter-less Alap, which systematically explores the notes of the raga. This is followed by the Jod (introduces rhythm) and Jhala (fast-paced climax). The composed section (bandish) has four parts: Sthayi (the main theme), Antara (development in the upper octave), Sanchari (free-flowing development), and Abhoga (concluding part).
  • Patronage and Exponents: Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior (reigned 1486–1516) was a great patron who systematized and popularized Dhrupad. The court of Mughal emperor Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) was a golden age for Dhrupad, featuring legendary singers like Miyan Tansen (born Ramtanu Pandey), Baiju Bawra, and Swami Haridas (Tansen’s guru). Tansen’s virtuosity earned him the title ‘Miyan’ (master) from Akbar.
  • Gharanas (Schools): Dhrupad is performed in four main styles or banis (which later influenced the Gharana system): Dagar Bani, Khandar Bani, Nauhar Bani, and Gauhar Bani. The modern Gharanas mentioned (Dagari, Bettiah, etc.) are lineages that preserve these styles.

• Khayal:

  • Origin and Nature: A Persian word meaning “imagination” or “thought.” While its seeds were sown by Amir Khusrau, it was developed into its modern form in the 18th century by Niyamat Khan (Sadarang) and Firoz Khan (Adarang) in the court of Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’. Khayal is more romantic, graceful, and lyrical than Dhrupad, offering greater scope for improvisation.
  • Structure: A Khayal performance typically has two parts: Bada Khayal (slow tempo, vilambit laya) and Chota Khayal (fast tempo, drut laya). A key feature is the use of Taans – rapid, intricate melodic passages sung on vowels.
  • Gharanas: Khayal is the most prominent form today and has numerous famous Gharanas, each with a distinct stylistic emphasis. Major ones include Gwalior (oldest), Agra, Kirana, Jaipur-Atrauli, Patiala, and Banaras.

Semi-Classical Hindustani Forms

These genres allow for more artistic liberty and place greater emphasis on emotional expression and lyrical content.

• Thumri: A lyrical and romantic form, its origin is linked to the court of Wajid Ali Shah in Lucknow and the Bhakti movement’s emphasis on divine love. It is sung primarily in Braj Bhasha. It has two main styles: Purvi Thumri (slow, emotive) and Punjabi Thumri (faster, more rhythmic). Banaras and Lucknow are the two principal Gharanas.
• Dhamar: A form associated with the Holi festival, sung in a 14-beat cycle called Dhamar Tala. The lyrics predominantly describe the playful love pranks of Krishna and the Gopis in the Braj region (Mathura, Vrindavan).
• Tappa: Originating from the folk songs of camel riders in the Punjab-Sindh region, its name means “jump” in Persian. It is characterized by swift, jumpy, and intricate melodic turns. Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori, a court musician in Lucknow, is credited with developing it into a classical form.
• Tarana: Attributed to Amir Khusrau, this form uses rhythmic, onomatopoeic syllables and meaningless words (e.g., tan, nom, tom, dere na). It is sung at a fast tempo and is known for its high entertainment value and rhythmic virtuosity.
• Qawwali: A form of Sufi devotional music, pioneered by Amir Khusrau. It is performed by a group (hamnawa) with a lead singer. The lyrics, often in Persian or Urdu, praise Allah, Prophet Muhammad, and Sufi saints. It is traditionally performed at shrines (dargahs), especially during the Urs (death anniversary of a saint).
• Ghazal: A poetic form that became a musical genre. Originating in Persia, it consists of rhyming couplets (sher) that express the pain of loss or the beauty of love. While often romantic, it can also have a mystical, Sufi undertone where the ‘beloved’ is God. Mirza Ghalib, Mir Taqi Mir, and the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar were legendary poets whose works are central to the Ghazal repertoire.

Carnatic Classical Music

• Early Development: The southern tradition evolved more linearly from ancient principles. Sarangadeva’s Sangeeta Ratnakara (13th century) is a foundational text for both systems. Later, the Sangeetasara of Vidyaranya (14th century) was an important text in the South. Purandara Dasa (1484–1564) is revered as the Pitamaha (Grandfather) of Carnatic music for structuring its pedagogy (system of lessons).
• The Melakarta System: The bedrock of modern Carnatic music is the Melakarta system, a highly systematic and scientific classification of ragas. It was formulated by Venkatamakhin in his 17th-century treatise, Chaturdandiprakashika. He devised a framework of 72 parent ragas (Melakarta) from which thousands of derivative ragas (Janya ragas) can be generated.
• Modern Systematization: In the early 20th century, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande made monumental contributions to the systematization and institutionalization of Hindustani music (not Carnatic, as the summary implies). He developed the Thaat system (classifying Hindustani ragas under 10 parent scales) after extensively studying both musical systems. His work, including founding the Bhatkhande Music Institute in Lucknow, revived and popularized classical music education across North India.
• Performance Structure: A Carnatic concert has a well-defined structure. The main piece, Ragam-Tanam-Pallavi (RTP), showcases the musician’s creativity.
  • Ragam (Alapana): A meter-less, improvised exploration of the raga, similar to the Hindustani Alap.
  • Tanam: A rhythmic, non-lyrical improvisation that bridges the Ragam and the Pallavi.
  • Pallavi: The main composed piece, set to a specific tala, which is then used as a theme for further improvisation.
• Kriti/Kirtanam: The most popular song form in Carnatic music. A Kriti is a poem set to music, while a Kirtanam is more devotional. These forms are the backbone of a typical Carnatic concert.
• The Trinity of Carnatic Music: Three legendary composers from the late 18th and early 19th centuries, all contemporaries in the Thanjavur region of Tamil Nadu, gave Carnatic music its current form.
  • Thyagaraja (1767–1847)
  • Muthuswami Dikshitar (1775–1835)
  • Syama Sastri (1762–1827)
• 20th Century Legends (Female Trinity):
  • M. S. Subbulakshmi (1916-2004): An iconic figure, she was the first musician ever to be awarded the Bharat Ratna (1998). She was also a recipient of the Ramon Magsaysay Award (1974) and famously performed at the UN General Assembly in 1966.
  • D. K. Pattammal (1919-2009)
  • M. L. Vasanthakumari (1928-1990)

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Prelims Pointers

• Vedic Period: The Sama Veda is the origin of Indian classical music. The priest who chanted its hymns was called the Udgatr.
• Upaveda for Music: The Gandharva Veda is the Upaveda associated with the Sama Veda and deals with the science of music.
• Foundational Text: Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra is the earliest and most authoritative text on Indian performing arts, including music.
• Core Concepts:
  • Shruti: Smallest perceivable unit of sound/pitch; there are 22 in an octave.
  • Swara: Musical note; there are 7 pure notes (shuddha swaras) in a scale (saptak).
  • Raga: Melodic framework. Must have at least 5 notes.
  • Tala: Rhythmic cycle made of beats (matras).
• Types of Ragas (by note count):
  1. Odava: 5 notes (Pentatonic)
  2. Shadava: 6 notes (Hexatonic)
  3. Sampurna: 7 notes (Heptatonic)
• Hindustani-Carnatic Split: Began in the medieval period (c. 13th-14th century) due to Persian influence in North India.
• Amir Khusrau (13th-14th Century):
  • Credited with creating forms like Qawwali, Khayal, Tarana.
  • Associated with the invention/modification of the Sitar and Tabla.
• Dhrupad:
  • Oldest form of Hindustani classical music.
  • Patronized by Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior and Emperor Akbar.
  • Famous singers: Miyan Tansen (original name: Ramtanu Pandey), Baiju Bawra, Swami Haridas.
• Khayal:
  • Persian word for “imagination.”
  • Popularized by Sadarang and Adarang in the 18th-century court of Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’.
  • Characterized by the use of Taans.
• Semi-Classical Forms & Associations:
  • Thumri: Lucknow, Banaras Gharanas.
  • Dhamar: Associated with Holi festival and Krishna-Gopi themes.
  • Tappa: Originated from camel riders of the North-West.
• Carnatic Music:
  • Pitamaha (Grandfather): Purandara Dasa.
  • Melakarta System: Formulated by Venkatamakhin in his work Chaturdandiprakashika. It has 72 parent ragas.
  • The Trinity (Male): Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri.
  • M. S. Subbulakshmi: First musician to be awarded the Bharat Ratna. Performed at the UN General Assembly in 1966.

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Mains Insights

1. Syncretism and Evolution in Indian Music:
   • Cause-Effect: The interaction between the indigenous Vedic/Hindu traditions and the incoming Perso-Arabic culture during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal era was not a replacement but a synthesis. This led to the creation of new genres (Khayal, Qawwali, Ghazal) and instruments (Sitar, Tabla) which enriched the musical landscape of North India, resulting in the Hindustani tradition.
   • Debate: The extent of Persian influence is a subject of historiographical debate. While some scholars emphasize the syncretic nature, others argue for the strong continuity of Indian traditions, viewing the changes as adaptations rather than fundamental alterations.
2. Music as a Reflection of Socio-Religious Movements:
   • Bhakti Movement: The Bhakti movement democratized religion and music. Saints like Kabir, Meerabai, and Surdas composed in local languages (Braj, Awadhi), creating devotional forms like Bhajans and Kirtans. This movement heavily influenced semi-classical forms like Thumri, which often uses the Radha-Krishna motif to express both human and divine love (Shringara and Bhakti rasa).
   • Sufi Movement: Similarly, Sufism used music as a powerful vehicle for achieving spiritual ecstasy and union with the divine. This led to the development of Qawwali by figures like Amir Khusrau at Sufi shrines (dargahs). The Ghazal also carries strong Sufi undertones, using the metaphor of romantic love for divine love.
3. The Gharana System: A Socio-Cultural Phenomenon:
   • Function: The Gharana system is more than just a stylistic school; it represents a unique lineage (guru-shishya parampara). It was a mechanism for preserving and transmitting musical knowledge in an era before formal institutions.
   • Significance: Each Gharana reflects a specific regional identity and a distinct aesthetic approach to a raga or musical form. It fostered innovation within a traditional framework, but could also lead to rigidity and insularity. In modern times, with increased interaction and institutional learning, the strict boundaries of Gharanas are gradually blurring.
4. Continuity and Change: From Temple to Court to Concert Hall:
   • Ancient Phase: Music was primarily a ritualistic adjunct in temples (e.g., Dhrupad’s origins). Its purpose was spiritual and functional.
   • Medieval Phase: Music moved into royal courts, becoming a sophisticated art form for entertainment and patronage. This phase saw the rise of professional musicians and the development of complex secular forms like Khayal.
   • Modern Phase: With the decline of princely states, patronage shifted to the public. Music moved to the concert hall and became a public performance art. This led to changes in performance duration, structure, and the rise of a ‘star’ system. The work of scholars like V.N. Bhatkhande and the establishment of institutions like All India Radio were crucial in this transition.

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