Art and Culture Notes 15

SANGAM LITERATURE

The term ‘Sangam’ literally means ‘confluence’ or ‘assembly’. In the context of Tamil literature, it refers to the assemblies of Tamil poets and scholars that flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings in ancient Tamilakam. The literary works produced during this period are collectively known as Sangam Literature.

The Three Sangams: According to Tamil tradition, three Sangams were held over a long period.
- First Sangam: Believed to have been held at ‘Then Madurai’ (Southern Madurai), it was reputedly attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary works from this period have survived. This Sangam is largely considered mythological.
- Second Sangam: Held at Kapatapuram, another capital of the Pandyas. All works from this assembly were lost except for one, Tolkappiyam.
  - Tolkappiyam: Authored by Tolkappiyar, it is the earliest extant work of Tamil literature and grammar. It is a comprehensive text that codifies Tamil grammar, but it also provides invaluable insights into the political, social, and economic conditions of the time. It divides the subject matter of poetry into Akam (the ‘interior’ aspect, dealing with love and relationships) and Puram (the ‘exterior’ aspect, dealing with war, governance, and public life). It also describes the five-fold division of land (thinai) based on geography: Kurinji (hilly), Mullai (pastoral), Marutham (agricultural), Neithal (coastal), and Palai (arid).
- Third Sangam: Held at the present-day city of Madurai. The bulk of the surviving Sangam literature comes from this period. The assembly was attended by a large number of poets, including over 30 poetesses, a notable one being Avvaiyar.
Classification of Sangam Literature: The extant corpus of Sangam literature, primarily from the Third Sangam, is broadly classified into two categories:
- Melkanakku (Eighteen Major Works): These are the older and more narrative texts. They are further subdivided into:
  - Ettuthokai (The Eight Anthologies): A collection of eight books containing over 2000 poems of varying lengths.
  - Pattuppattu (The Ten Idylls): A collection of ten longer poems.
- Kizilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works): These are generally shorter and deal with ethical and moral themes (niti). They are of a later period than the Melkanakku works. The most important work in this category is Thirukkural.
Post-Sangam Epics: Following the Sangam period, two great Tamil epics were composed:
- Silappathikaram (The Jewelled Anklet): Written by Ilango Adigal, a Jain prince. It is a tragic love story of a merchant, Kovalan, his wife Kannagi, and a courtesan, Madhavi. It provides a vivid portrayal of the society, culture, and polity of the Tamil kingdoms of Chera, Chola, and Pandya.
- Manimekalai (The Girdle of Gems): Written by Sittalai Sattanar, a Buddhist grain merchant. It is a sequel to Silappathikaram and narrates the story of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who becomes a Buddhist nun. The epic advocates the principles of Buddhism.
Thirukkural: Authored by the sage Thiruvalluvar, this text is a masterpiece of Tamil literature dealing with ethics, polity, and love. It is considered a secular and universal guide to leading a noble life.
- It consists of 1330 couplets (kurals) divided into 133 chapters.
- It is structured into three parts: Aram (Dharma/Righteousness), Porul (Artha/Wealth and Polity), and Inbam or Kamam (Kama/Love).
- Its profound wisdom and universal appeal have led to it being revered as the ‘Tamil Veda’ and it holds a place of high honour in Tamil culture, including being used in courts of law for taking oaths.

URDU LANGUAGE

Etymology and Origin: The word ‘Urdu’ is of Turkish origin, meaning ‘camp’ or ‘army’. The language emerged as a lingua franca in the military camps of the Delhi Sultanate during the medieval period (c. 13th century).
Linguistic Synthesis: It was born out of the interaction between the Persian and Turkish-speaking soldiers and officers of the Sultanate armies and the local Indian soldiers who spoke various dialects of Hindavi, particularly Khari Boli.
- Vocabulary: Its lexicon is a rich blend, drawing words primarily from Persian, Arabic, and Turkish, integrated with the native Khari Boli base.
- Grammar and Syntax: The grammatical structure of Urdu is fundamentally Indic, based on the Prakrits, specifically the Shauraseni Apabhramsha, which was prevalent in the Delhi region.
Early Development:
- Amir Khusrau (1253-1325), the renowned poet and musician in the court of the Delhi Sultans, is often credited as one of the first to use this nascent language, which he called ‘Hindavi’, for literary composition. He is sometimes referred to as the “father of Urdu literature”.
- While it originated in the north, Urdu found significant patronage and flourished as a literary language first in the Deccan Sultanates (Golkonda and Bijapur) in the 16th-17th centuries, where it was known as Dakhani.
- It was only later, in the 18th century, that it became a major literary language in North India, especially Delhi.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Concept of Bhakti: The term ‘Bhakti’ signifies intense, personal, and emotional devotion to a deity. It represents a path to salvation that emphasizes love and surrender to God over ritualism or intellectual knowledge.
Early Roots: While the concept can be traced to the Upanishads, its first clear exposition is found in the Bhagavad Gita (compiled during the Gupta period, c. 4th-5th century CE), where Lord Krishna outlines Bhakti Yoga as a path to liberation, superseding the complex Vedic sacrifices.
Origin in South India (c. 7th-9th Century AD): The Bhakti movement as a popular, socio-religious phenomenon began in the Tamil-speaking regions of South India. It was spearheaded by two groups of poet-saints who travelled, sang devotional hymns in the vernacular Tamil, and challenged religious orthodoxies.
- Alwars: They were the 12 poet-saints devoted to Lord Vishnu. Their compositions were intensely emotional and personal. Notable Alwars include Nammalvar and Andal (the only female Alwar). Their hymns were later compiled in the 10th century by Nathamuni into a collection called the Nalayira Divya Prabandham (Four Thousand Divine Compositions), often revered as the “Tamil Veda”.
- Nayanars: They were the 63 poet-saints devoted to Lord Shiva. Their hymns expressed a powerful and ecstatic devotion. Key Nayanars include Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar. Their devotional songs were collected in volumes known as Tevaram, which form a part of the Saiva canon called the Tirumurai.
Philosophical Consolidation:
- Adi Shankaracharya (c. 8th Century AD): A towering intellectual figure, he propounded the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta (Absolute Monism or non-dualism), which posits that the individual soul (Atman) is identical to the ultimate reality (Brahman). While his primary path was Jnana Marga (path of knowledge), he also composed many devotional hymns (stotras) and is credited with providing a strong intellectual defence for Hinduism against other prevailing philosophies.
- Ramanujacharya (c. 11th-12th Century AD): A philosopher from Srirangam, he propounded the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Monism). He countered Shankara’s absolute monism by arguing that the soul, though part of Brahman, retains its distinct identity. He provided a robust philosophical foundation for the Bhakti movement, championing it as the supreme path to salvation. His teachings popularized Vaishnavism and spread northward through his disciples like Ramananda.

LINGAYAT MOVEMENT

Foundation: The Lingayat movement, also known as Virashaivism, was a radical socio-religious movement that emerged in Karnataka in the 12th century AD. Its foundation is attributed to Basavanna (Basaveshwara), who was a minister in the court of the Kalachuri king, Bijjala II.
Core Beliefs and Practices:
- It was a monotheistic movement centred on the worship of Shiva as the one and only ultimate reality.
- Adherents wear an Ishtalinga, a small linga in a pendant around their neck, symbolizing a personal and constant connection with the divine. This replaced the need for temple worship.
- A key practice is the burial of the dead, in contrast to the Hindu custom of cremation. Lingayats believe that upon death, the devotee’s soul merges with Shiva, and thus the body, considered a temple of the soul, should be interred.
Social Reforms: The movement was profoundly progressive and egalitarian.
- Rejection of Caste: It vehemently rejected the caste system, ritualistic complexities, and Brahminical hegemony. Its followers included people from all social strata, including the lowest castes.
- Gender Equality: It championed the cause of women, encouraging their participation in religious and social life. It supported widow remarriage and post-puberty marriage, which were radical ideas for the time.
- Dignity of Labour: It preached the concept of Kayaka (divine work), asserting that all honest labour is a form of worship.
Literature: The teachings of Basavanna and other Lingayat saints were expressed in simple, vernacular Kannada prose poems known as Vachanas.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA

Maharashtra Dharma: The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra, which began in the 13th century AD, is often referred to as Maharashtra Dharma. It revolved around the worship of Vithoba (a manifestation of Vishnu/Krishna) at Pandharpur.
Warkari Tradition: The main tradition is the Warkari sampradaya (the pilgrim’s tradition), which involves an annual pilgrimage (wari) on foot to Pandharpur.
Key Saints:
- Sant Jnaneshwar (or Jnanadev) (13th Century): He is considered the founder of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra. At a young age, he wrote the Jnaneshwari, a celebrated commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Marathi, and Amrutanubhav. His work made profound philosophical ideas accessible to the common people in their own language.
- Namdeva (13th-14th Century): A disciple of Jnaneshwar and a tailor by profession. He composed devotional poems known as abhangas and travelled to North India, popularizing the Vithoba cult. Some of his verses are included in the Sikh holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib.
- Sant Tukaram (17th Century): A highly influential Bhakti saint from the Shudra community. He challenged the caste-based restrictions that forbade lower castes from interpreting religious texts. He composed thousands of devotional abhangas in Marathi, which contain profound spiritual insights and social commentary.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN NORTH INDIA

By the 14th-15th centuries, the Bhakti movement had gained significant momentum in North India, branching into two main philosophical streams.

Nirguna Bhakti (Monotheistic):
- This school conceived of God as formless, eternal, and without attributes (Nirguna).
- They rejected idol worship, religious rituals, pilgrimages, and the caste system. They often drew inspiration from both Hindu Vedantic thought and Islamic Sufism.
- Kabir (c. 15th Century): A weaver from Varanasi, he was the most prominent Nirguna saint. His teachings were a radical synthesis of Hindu and Islamic ideas, criticising the orthodoxies of both religions. He preached devotion to a single, universal God who could be called by any name (Ram, Rahim, Allah). Though illiterate, his powerful sayings (sakhis and pads) were compiled by his disciples in works like the Bijak.
- Guru Nanak (1469-1539): The founder of Sikhism, he preached the oneness of God (Ik Onkar) and the equality of all humanity. He rejected asceticism, ritualism, and caste discrimination. His teachings emphasized meditation on the divine name (Naam Japna), honest living (Kirat Karo), and sharing with others (Vand Chakko). His hymns, known as shabads, are compiled in the Guru Granth Sahib.
Saguna Bhakti (Vaishnavite):
- This school conceived of God with form and attributes (Saguna), worshipping avatars of Vishnu, primarily Rama and Krishna.
- They believed in idol worship, devotional rituals, and the importance of gurus.
- Ramananda (14th-15th Century): A follower of the Ramanuja school, he is credited with bridging the Bhakti movements of the South and the North. He made Rama the focus of devotion and used the vernacular (Hindi) to preach, making his teachings widely accessible. His disciples included people from all castes.
- Surdas (16th Century): A blind poet and devotee of Lord Krishna. His lyrical poems, compiled in the Sursagar, exquisitely describe the childhood pranks and divine love of Krishna.
- Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534): A Bengali saint who popularized the worship of Krishna through ecstatic singing and dancing, known as sankirtan. His influence was profound in Bengal and Odisha.
- Mirabai (c. 1498-1546): A Rajput princess from Rajasthan who renounced her royal life to become an ardent devotee of Lord Krishna. Her soulful bhajans expressing her love for Krishna are immensely popular throughout India.
- Tulsidas (1532-1623): An ardent devotee of Lord Rama. He authored the Ramcharitmanas in the Awadhi dialect of Hindi. This epic retelling of the Ramayana became the most sacred text for millions of Rama devotees in North India.

SUFI MOVEMENT

Origins and Meaning: Sufism, or Tasawwuf, is the mystical dimension of Islam. It emerged as a response to the growing materialism and dogmatic legalism of the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates. The term ‘Sufi’ is believed to be derived from suf (wool), referring to the coarse woolen garments worn by early mystics. Sufis sought a direct, personal experience of God through love, devotion, and contemplation, tracing their spiritual lineage directly to the Prophet Muhammad.
Silsilas (Orders): Sufis organized themselves into various orders or silsilas, each with its own spiritual master, known as Shaikh, Pir, or Murshid, who guided disciples (murids).
Chishti Silsila: This was one of the most influential Sufi orders in India, founded by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti. It was known for its emphasis on love, tolerance, service to humanity, and assimilation of local traditions like devotional music (sama). The Chishtis generally maintained a distance from state power.
- Shaikh Moinuddin Chishti (d. 1236): Arrived in India before the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and settled in Ajmer. Known as Gharib Nawaz (Benefactor of the Poor), his piety and compassion attracted a large following. His shrine (dargah) in Ajmer is a major pilgrimage centre. He started the practice of community kitchens to feed the poor.
- Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar (d. 1265): A disciple of Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, he made Pakpattan (in modern Pakistan) his centre. His simple and humane teachings, expressed in the local language, earned him great respect. Some of his verses are included in the Sikh Guru Granth Sahib.
- Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (d. 1325): The most revered Chishti saint of Delhi, he lived during the reigns of seven Sultans but never visited the royal court. His hospice (khanqah) in Delhi was a centre of spiritual solace and charity for people of all classes and faiths. He is known as Mehboob-e-Ilahi (Beloved of God).
- Naseeruddin Chirag-i-Dehli (d. 1356): The “Lamp of Delhi”, he was the successor of Nizamuddin Auliya and a key figure in sustaining the Chishti order during the turbulent period of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign.
- Shaikh Salim Chishti (d. 1572): A later Chishti saint who lived in Sikri. The Mughal Emperor Akbar held him in high reverence and credited him with the birth of his son, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir). In his honour, Akbar built a magnificent tomb in Fatehpur Sikri and shifted his capital there for a period.

SUHRAWADI SILSILA

Foundation and Principles: This order was founded in India by Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya (d. 1262), who established his centre in Multan. In stark contrast to the Chishtis, the Suhrawardis did not believe in a life of poverty and isolation from the state.
Relationship with the State: They maintained close and cordial relations with the Delhi Sultans, accepting land grants, gifts, and official posts. Bahauddin Zakariya supported Sultan Iltutmish and was conferred the title of Shaikh-ul-Islam (Leader of Islam). They believed that by engaging with the ruling class, they could better influence policy and serve the people. This order was primarily influential in Punjab and Sindh.

Prelims Pointers

Sangam Literature:
- Patrons: Pandya Kings.
- Location of assemblies: Madurai and Kapatapuram.
- Earliest surviving Tamil text: Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar.
- Sangam themes: Akam (love) and Puram (war/public life).
- Major classifications: Melkanakku (Ettuthokai & Pattuppattu) and Kizilkanakku.
- Important Kizilkanakku text: Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar.
- Post-Sangam Epics: Silappathikaram (Ilango Adigal), Manimekalai (Sittalai Sattanar).
Urdu Language:
- Origin: Military camps of Delhi Sultanate.
- Meaning of ‘Urdu’: Turkish for ‘camp’.
- Linguistic base: Khari Boli (Hindavi) with vocabulary from Persian, Arabic, Turkish.
- Grammar: Based on Shauraseni Prakrit.
- Early literary figure: Amir Khusrau.
- Early centre of development: Deccan Sultanates (as ‘Dakhani’).
Bhakti Movement:
- First clear mention of Bhakti Yoga: Bhagavad Gita.
- Origin of the popular movement: 7th Century, Tamil Nadu.
- Alwars: 12 saints, devotees of Vishnu. Their hymns are in Divya Prabandham.
- Nayanars: 63 saints, devotees of Shiva. Their hymns are in Tevaram.
- Adi Shankaracharya: Propounder of Advaita Vedanta (Monism).
- Ramanujacharya: Propounder of Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Monism).
Lingayat Movement:
- Founder: Basavanna (12th Century AD, Karnataka).
- Deity: Shiva.
- Core practice: Wearing an Ishtalinga.
- Social Reforms: Anti-caste, pro-women’s rights (widow remarriage).
- Practice for the dead: Burial, not cremation.
- Literary works: Vachanas in Kannada.
Bhakti in Maharashtra:
- Deity: Vithoba of Pandharpur.
- Tradition: Warkari Sampradaya.
- Key Saints: Jnaneshwar, Namdeva, Tukaram.
- Key text: Jnaneshwari (commentary on Gita in Marathi).
- Devotional poems: Abhangas.
Bhakti in North India:
- Nirguna Saints: Kabir (works in Bijak), Guru Nanak (works in Guru Granth Sahib).
- Saguna Saints: Ramananda (Rama bhakti), Surdas (Sursagar, Krishna bhakti), Mirabai (Krishna bhakti), Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas, Rama bhakti), Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Krishna bhakti).
Sufi Movement:
- Chishti founder in India: Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer).
- Chishti practice: Aloofness from state, devotional music (sama).
- Baba Farid’s verses are in: Guru Granth Sahib.
- Sufi who saw 7 Sultans: Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi).
- “Lamp of Delhi”: Naseeruddin Chirag-i-Dehli.
- Suhrawardi founder in India: Bahauddin Zakariya (Multan).
- Suhrawardi practice: Close relations with the state, accepted official posts.

Mains Insights

Sangam Literature as a Historical Source:
- Significance: Sangam texts, despite their poetic nature, are a primary source for reconstructing the history of early South India (c. 300 BCE - 300 CE). They provide details on the polity (Chera, Chola, Pandya kings), society (caste system, status of women), economy (trade with Romans, agriculture), and culture.
- Historiographical Debate: Historians like K.A. Nilakanta Sastri used these texts to construct a ‘classical’ age, while later scholars have cautioned against taking literary accounts as literal truth, emphasizing the need to corroborate with archaeological evidence (e.g., Arikamedu, Pattanam) and epigraphy.
Bhakti and Sufi Movements as Catalysts for Social Change:
- Challenge to Orthodoxy: Both movements challenged the hegemony of Brahminical rituals (Bhakti) and orthodox Ulema (Sufism). They emphasized a direct, personal relationship with God, making religion more accessible and democratic.
- Social Egalitarianism: By rejecting caste distinctions and using vernacular languages, saints like Kabir, Nanak, and Basavanna fostered a spirit of equality. Their followers came from all strata of society, including artisans, peasants, and women, giving a voice to the marginalized.
- Limitations: While they challenged social hierarchies, these movements did not completely uproot the caste system or patriarchy, which remained deeply entrenched in society. Their impact was more on the religious and cultural planes than on fundamentally altering the socio-political structure.
Syncretism and Cultural Synthesis:
- Cause-Effect: The interaction between Hinduism and Islam in medieval India was not solely one of conflict. The Bhakti and Sufi movements represent a creative synthesis. Sufi saints adopted local customs, and Nirguna Bhakti saints like Kabir openly borrowed from both traditions.
- Examples: The development of Urdu language, Indo-Islamic architecture, and shared pilgrimage sites (like the Dargah of Moinuddin Chishti visited by all faiths) are testaments to this syncretic culture. This perspective counters the colonial and communal historiography that portrays Hindu-Muslim relations as perpetually antagonistic.
Language, Literature, and Regional Identity:
- The Bhakti movement played a pivotal role in the development of modern regional languages. Saints composed their works in the local vernacular (Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, Awadhi, etc.) rather than Sanskrit.
- This led to a flowering of regional literature (e.g., Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi, Jnaneshwar’s Jnaneshwari in Marathi) and helped in the consolidation of distinct regional linguistic and cultural identities.

GS Notes