4. Disaster Management Notes 04

Elaborate Notes

Funds for Managing Disasters

Disaster management financing in India is structured at both the central and state levels, a framework institutionalised by the Disaster Management (DM) Act of 2005. This framework aims to provide dedicated funds for various stages of the disaster management cycle.

Union Level Funds:
- National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF): The NDRF is a fund managed by the Central Government for meeting the expenses for emergency response, relief, and rehabilitation due to any threatening disaster situation or disaster. It is constituted under Section 46 of the DM Act, 2005. The fund is financed through a levy of a cess on certain items, excise and customs duty, and approved annually through the Finance Bill. The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India audits the accounts of NDRF. Prior to the DM Act, 2005, a Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) and National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) were in operation based on the recommendations of the Finance Commissions. The 13th Finance Commission (2010-2015) recommended the merger of NCCF into the NDRF.
- National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF): Section 47 of the DM Act, 2005, provides for the constitution of a National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) for projects exclusively for the purpose of mitigation. However, this fund has not yet been operationalized, a point of recurring criticism and parliamentary debate.
State Level Funds:
- State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF): The SDRF, constituted under Section 48(1)(a) of the DM Act, 2005, is the primary fund available with State Governments for responses to notified disasters. The Central Government contributes 75% of the SDRF allocation for general category States/UTs and 90% for special category States/UTs (northeastern states, Sikkim, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand).
- State Disaster Mitigation Fund (SDMF): Similar to the NDMF, the DM Act provides for the creation of SDMF at the state level. However, its creation and operationalization have been lagging in most states.
Role of the Finance Commission (Article 280):
- The Finance Commission, a constitutional body under Article 280, plays a crucial role in recommending the quantum of funds for disaster relief. It assesses the needs of the states and recommends the size of the SDRF for its award period (typically five years) and the contribution of the central and state governments. The recommendations of successive Finance Commissions, from the 9th FC (1989-1994) onwards, have been pivotal in shaping the disaster financing architecture in India.
Policy and Legal Framework:
- The Disaster Management Act, 2005, was a paradigm shift, moving the focus from a relief-centric approach to a proactive regime encompassing prevention, mitigation, and preparedness.
- The National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM), 2009, was formulated to build a safe and disaster-resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster oriented, and technology-driven strategy.

National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR)

The NPDRR was established by the Government of India by a resolution in 2013. It is a multi-stakeholder and multi-sectoral decision-making body on disaster management.

Leadership and Composition: The platform is chaired by the Union Home Minister, and the Minister of State in-charge of Disaster Management in the Ministry ofHome Affairs and the Vice-Chairperson of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) act as its Vice-Chairpersons. Its members include representatives from central and state governments, local self-governments, parliamentarians, scientific and academic institutions, corporate sector, media, and civil society organisations.
Mandate and Function: The NPDRR’s primary function is to facilitate dialogue and sharing of experiences, ideas, and best practices in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). It helps in mainstreaming DRR into developmental policies and plans. The platform aligns with the global agenda for DRR, particularly the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030), which emphasizes the need for such multi-stakeholder platforms to ensure an all-of-society approach to disaster management.

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and State Disaster Response Force (SDRF)

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF):
- Constituted under Section 44 of the DM Act, 2005, the NDRF is a specialized force for responding to disasters. It is widely regarded as the first dedicated disaster response force of its kind globally.
- Structure: As of present, the NDRF comprises 16 battalions, each with a strength of approximately 1149 personnel. These personnel are on deputation from various Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) like the Border Security Force (BSF), Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), Central Industrial Security Force (CISF), Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) and Assam Rifles.
- Strategic Placement: NDRF battalions are strategically located across the country based on the vulnerability profile to cut down response time. For example, battalions are placed in regions prone to floods (e.g., Bihar, Assam), cyclones (e.g., Odisha, Andhra Pradesh), earthquakes (e.g., NCR Delhi, Punjab), and landslides (e.g., Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh). The Director-General of NDRF is an IPS officer with the rank of Director General of Police.
- Role: Beyond domestic response operations such as the Kerala Floods (2018) and Uttarakhand Flash Floods (2013), the NDRF has also been deployed for international missions, including the Japan Triple Disaster (2011) and the Nepal Earthquake (2015), earning global acclaim for its efficiency.
State Disaster Response Force (SDRF):
- The DM Act, 2005, mandates the constitution of SDRF in every state. These forces are the first responders in any disaster situation within a state.
- Many states have established their SDRF on the lines of the NDRF, training their police and other personnel in specialized disaster response skills. The operationalisation and capacity of SDRFs vary significantly across states.

Practical Implementation of Disaster Management in India

Despite the comprehensive legal framework provided by the DM Act, 2005, its implementation faces several challenges, leading to a gap between the intended and actual practice of disaster management.

Institutional Gaps:
- While the NDMA at the national level and SDMAs at the state level have been constituted, they often function with skeletal staff and lack the required field-level workforce and technical expertise. A 2013 report by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India highlighted significant deficiencies in the functioning of the NDMA.
- The District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA), chaired by the District Collector/Magistrate, is the lynchpin of the DM structure, but its effectiveness is often hampered by a lack of dedicated personnel and resources.
Financial Gaps:
- The most significant gap is the non-operationalisation of the National and State Disaster Mitigation Funds (NDMF and SDMF). Consequently, financial allocation remains heavily skewed towards response and relief.
- In practice, disaster financing continues to rely on a mix of pre-DM Act mechanisms (like the Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund, Chief Minister’s Relief Funds, and Contingency Funds) and post-DM Act structures (NDRF and SDRF). This results in an ad-hoc approach to funding, particularly for long-term mitigation.
Resultant Structure:
- In the event of a disaster, a hybrid response structure is activated. The pre-existing administrative machinery (led by the District Collector) works in tandem with the newer specialized bodies like the NDRF and SDRF, along with other stakeholders such as the military, civil society, and the private sector.

Mitigation Activities: The Proactive-Reactive Debate

The core philosophy of the DM Act, 2005 was to engineer a paradigm shift from a reactive (relief-centric) to a proactive (mitigation and preparedness-focused) approach.

The Funding Issue: The non-creation of the NDMF is the primary institutional hurdle in making mitigation a central focus. The government’s justification in Parliament is that various developmental schemes and sectoral ministry budgets already incorporate mitigation components, making a separate fund redundant. For example, watershed management projects under the Ministry of Rural Development have drought mitigation benefits.
Consequences of Ad-hoc Mitigation:
- This approach prevents the development of a systematic, institutionalised framework for risk reduction. Mitigation becomes a byproduct of development rather than a planned, targeted intervention.
- This leads to an ad-hoc approach where actions are often taken post-disaster rather than pre-emptively.
- Examples of Mitigation Efforts: Despite the lack of a dedicated fund, some states have undertaken notable mitigation projects.
  - Odisha: Following the 1999 Super Cyclone, the Odisha State Disaster Management Authority (OSDMA) implemented the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) with World Bank assistance, building multipurpose cyclone shelters and coastal embankments. This significantly reduced casualties during Cyclone Phailin (2013) and subsequent cyclones.
  - Uttarakhand: After the 2013 flash floods, slope stabilization, construction of retaining walls, and improved early warning systems for flash floods have been undertaken.
  - Tamil Nadu: Post the 2004 Tsunami, the state has invested in coastal bio-shields (mangrove plantations), tsunami early warning systems, and coastal community preparedness programs.
The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP):
- The first-ever NDMP was released in 2016 and updated in 2019. It aims to make India disaster-resilient and significantly reduce the loss of life and assets. It provides a framework for all government agencies and departments to work in coherence.
- The NDMP is designed to be congruent with international commitments, especially the Sendai Framework. It seeks to fix responsibilities for different hazard situations on specific central ministries/departments and has designated central agencies for providing early warnings for various hazards.

Main Pillars of the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP)

The NDMP (2019) is built on five foundational pillars that guide its implementation.

Conforming to National Legal Mandates: The plan is firmly rooted in the provisions of the Disaster Management Act, 2005, and the National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009.
Proactive Participation in Global Targets: It aligns India’s DRR efforts with major international frameworks:
- Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030): The NDMP incorporates the four priorities and seven global targets of the Sendai Framework.
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2015-2030): It recognizes that disasters disproportionately affect the poor and can reverse development gains, thus linking DRR to achieving goals like SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities).
- Paris Agreement on Climate Change (2015): The plan acknowledges the link between climate change and the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, integrating climate change adaptation into DRR.
Prime Minister’s 10-Point Agenda on DRR: This serves as a set of national priorities articulated by the Prime Minister at the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in 2016.
Social Inclusion: This is a cross-cutting principle ensuring that the needs of vulnerable and marginalized groups (women, children, the elderly, persons with disabilities, etc.) are addressed in all phases of disaster management.
Mainstreaming DRR: The plan emphasizes integrating disaster risk reduction measures into the developmental plans and projects of all government sectors and departments.

Prime Minister’s 10-Point Agenda for Disaster Risk Reduction

This agenda provides a strategic vision for DRR in India.

Imbibe DRR in all Development Sectors: Ensure that infrastructure projects like airports, roads, and power stations are built to disaster-resilient standards.
Risk Coverage for All: Move towards risk coverage for all, from poor households to SMEs to multinational corporations.
Involve Women in Leadership: Leverage the skills and leadership of women in disaster risk management.
Invest in Risk Mapping: Use scientific data for granular risk mapping at all levels to improve understanding.
Leverage Technology: Utilize technology to enhance the efficiency of DRR efforts, including early warning and response.
Utilize Social Media: Tap into the potential of social media and mobile technologies for disaster management.
Network of Universities: Develop a network of universities to work on disaster-related issues.
Build on Local Capacity: Utilize traditional local knowledge and build local capacity for effective response.
Greater Cohesion in International Response: Improve coordination in international response to disasters.
Learn from Every Disaster: Treat every disaster as an opportunity to learn and improve DRR measures.

Technical Aspects and Coordination Networks

Effective disaster management relies heavily on robust information and communication technology.

India Disaster Resource Network (IDRN): This is a web-based, nationwide electronic inventory of resources, both equipment and trained human resources, essential for disaster response. Managed by the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), it provides real-time information to decision-makers to locate and mobilize resources efficiently.
Corporate Disaster Resource Network (CDRN): This is a platform to facilitate coordination between the corporate sector, response agencies, and civil society. It aims to channelize the resources and capabilities of the corporate sector for a more effective response during disasters, often as part of their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives.
National Disaster Communication Network (NDCN): This is designed as a fail-safe communication infrastructure. It is a network of networks, integrating various communication technologies like State-Wide Area Networks (SWAN), the National Informatics Centre network (NICNET), and VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) satellite networks to ensure connectivity remains intact even when conventional communication lines fail during a disaster.

Technologies and Services for DRR

National Disaster Management Services (NDMS): This is a pilot project implemented through BSNL to provide a fail-safe satellite-based communication network connecting the MHA, NDMA, NDRF HQ, and all State Emergency Operation Centres (SEOCs) and 80+ vulnerable districts.
Earthquake Disaster Risk Indexing (EDRI): This initiative has been undertaken for 50 important cities and one district located in seismic zones IV and V. The index provides a comparative measure of overall earthquake risk across these urban areas, helping city administrators prioritize mitigation and preparedness actions.
Geographical Information System (GIS): GIS is a critical tool for disaster management. It is used for hazard and vulnerability mapping, creating risk atlases, planning evacuation routes, assessing post-disaster damage, and coordinating relief operations by integrating spatial data from various sources like satellite imagery and ground surveys.

Early Warning System (EWS)

An effective EWS is a cornerstone of proactive disaster management, enabling timely evacuation and preparedness. It involves four key components:

Sensing the Precursor: Monitoring and detecting the early signs of a potential hazard (e.g., a developing cyclone, rising river levels).
Transmission of Raw Data: Sending the sensor data to processing centres.
Processing Data: Analyzing the data to generate specific, understandable alerts and warnings.
Disseminating the Alert: Communicating the warning to the authorities and the public at risk through multiple channels to ensure “last-mile connectivity.”

Relevant EWS for Different Disasters

Cyclones (Nodal Agency: India Meteorological Department - IMD):
- Surface Observatories & Radiosonde Stations: Traditional weather monitoring stations.
- Doppler Weather Radars: Provide real-time data on cloud formation, wind speed, and precipitation, crucial for tracking cyclones.
- INSAT Satellites: Continuously monitor oceanic areas for cyclone formation.
- Cyclone Warning Dissemination System (CWDS): A system to directly broadcast warnings to coastal areas.
Floods (Nodal Agency: Central Water Commission - CWC):
- Flood Gauge Stations: Placed along rivers to monitor water levels.
- Channel Flow Meters: Measure the velocity and discharge of water.
- CWC issues flood forecasts and warnings for major rivers across the country.
Tsunami (Nodal Agency: Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services - INCOIS):
- Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC): Established in Hyderabad post-2004 tsunami.
- Shore-based Tidal Gauges: Monitor sea levels along the coast.
- Bottom Pressure Recorders (BPRs): Deployed on the ocean floor to detect the pressure changes caused by a tsunami wave.
- Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) Buoys: A network of buoys to confirm the generation of a tsunami.
Landslides (Nodal Agency: Geological Survey of India - GSI):
- Rainfall Thresholds: GSI has developed area-specific rainfall thresholds that can trigger landslide warnings.
- Sensors: Rain gauges, pressure sensors, and extensometers can be deployed in high-risk areas to monitor ground movement.
- GSI is responsible for landslide hazard zonation mapping.

2nd ARC Report on Crisis Management

The 3rd Report of the Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC), titled “Crisis Management” (2006), provided comprehensive recommendations to improve India’s disaster and crisis management capabilities. Key roles for DM authorities outlined in the report include:

Effective Coordination: Seamless engagement and coordination between central, state, and district authorities.
Capacity Building: Strengthening infrastructure and institutional capacity at all levels.
Clarity of Plans: Ensuring a proper understanding of DM policies and plans among all functionaries.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): Developing and ensuring adherence to clear SOPs for different disasters.
Stakeholder Sensitisation: Creating awareness among all stakeholders, including government agencies and the public.
Disaster Preparedness: Building essential infrastructure like rescue shelters and stockpiling relief materials.
Public Awareness: Disseminating public awareness messages through various media.
Community Engagement: Involving the community in planning and preparedness, leveraging local knowledge.
Functional EWS: Ensuring robust and functional early warning systems with last-mile connectivity.
Communication Systems: Maintaining reliable and redundant communication systems.
Response Mechanism: Ensuring a well-oiled and functional response mechanism.
Mock Drills: Conducting regular mock drills and simulation exercises to test preparedness levels.

Prelims Pointers

The Disaster Management Act was enacted in 2005.
The National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) was released in 2009.
The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) was first released in 2016.
The National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR), established in 2013, is headed by the Union Home Minister.
Article 280 of the Constitution pertains to the Finance Commission, which recommends financial allocations for disaster management.
NDRF is constituted under Section 46 and NDMF under Section 47 of the DM Act, 2005.
The Central Government contributes 75% to the SDRF for general category states and 90% for special category states.
The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) currently has 16 battalions.
NDRF personnel are on deputation from Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs).
India Disaster Resource Network (IDRN) is a nationwide electronic inventory of resources for disaster response.
Nodal Agencies for Early Warning:
1. Cyclones: India Meteorological Department (IMD)
2. Floods: Central Water Commission (CWC)
3. Tsunami: Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS)
4. Landslides: Geological Survey of India (GSI)
The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) report on “Crisis Management” is its 3rd Report.
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction covers the period 2015-2030.
The PM’s 10-Point Agenda on DRR was announced at the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR) in 2016.
The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) is located in Hyderabad.

Mains Insights

The Gap Between Policy and Practice in Disaster Management

The Mitigation Funding Conundrum:
- Cause: The DM Act, 2005, legally mandates the creation of the National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF), but it has not been operationalized. The government’s stance is that existing developmental funds serve the purpose of mitigation.
- Effect: This has led to a systematic underfunding of mitigation and preparedness activities. The focus remains overwhelmingly on post-disaster response and relief, perpetuating the reactive approach that the Act sought to change. It undermines the principle of mainstreaming DRR, as mitigation efforts lack dedicated financial backing and are not systematically integrated into planning.
- Historiographical Viewpoint: The evolution of disaster management in India shows a shift from a relief-centric approach (pre-2005) to a holistic one on paper. However, the lack of dedicated mitigation funds indicates that the financial architecture has not fully caught up with the legal and policy paradigm shift.
Institutional Weaknesses and Capacity Constraints:
- Issue: Despite the creation of a three-tiered structure (NDMA-SDMA-DDMA), these bodies often lack the necessary technical expertise, dedicated staff, and financial autonomy. As highlighted by the CAG, the NDMA’s role has often been advisory rather than executive. At the district level, the DDMA is heavily dependent on the already overburdened District Collector.
- Implication: This institutional frailty hampers effective planning, coordination, and implementation of DM plans. The success of disaster management becomes person-dependent (on a proactive District Collector, for instance) rather than system-dependent, which is not a sustainable model.
The ‘Whole-of-Society’ Approach: An Aspiration vs. Reality:
- Debate: The NPDRR and the PM’s 10-point agenda champion a multi-stakeholder, ‘whole-of-society’ approach involving civil society, academia, and the private sector. However, community participation often remains tokenistic.
- Analysis: While platforms like NPDRR exist, translating their recommendations into grassroots action requires robust mechanisms for community engagement. Building on local and indigenous knowledge (as advocated in the PM’s agenda) is crucial but often overlooked in top-down planning processes. Effective DRR requires a move from community-based disaster management as a project to a sustained, institutionalized practice.
Integrating DRR with Climate Change Adaptation and Development:
- Linkage: The NDMP explicitly links DRR with the Sendai Framework, SDGs, and the Paris Agreement. This is critical as climate change is a major driver of disaster risk, increasing the frequency and intensity of hydrometeorological events.
- Perspective for GS Paper III: A key challenge is ensuring that developmental projects are ‘risk-informed’. Unplanned urbanization, environmental degradation (e.g., deforestation in the Himalayas), and construction in ecologically sensitive zones increase vulnerability. For instance, the Uttarakhand (2013, 2021) and Kerala (2018) disasters were exacerbated by such factors. Therefore, disaster management cannot be seen in isolation from environmental governance and sustainable development planning. The non-operationalization of the NDMF directly impacts the ability to invest in climate-resilient infrastructure.
Ethical Dimensions in Disaster Management (GS Paper IV):
- Principle of Social Inclusion: The NDMP’s focus on social inclusion is an ethical imperative. Disasters disproportionately affect the most vulnerable sections of society. A ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach to relief and rehabilitation is ineffective and unjust.
- Case Study: The response to a disaster must be sensitive to the specific needs of women (e.g., sanitation and safety in shelters), children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities. Ensuring transparency and accountability in the distribution of relief funds is a matter of administrative ethics and probity in governance. The principle of ‘Building Back Better’ from the Sendai Framework has a strong ethical dimension: using the post-disaster recovery phase to create more equitable and resilient communities.

GS Notes