GS Notes

5. Environment Notes 08

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Based on the provided summary, here are the detailed academic notes in the requested format.

Elaborate Notes

Forest Fire

A forest fire, also known as a wildfire or bushfire, is any uncontrolled and non-prescribed combustion or burning of plants in a natural setting such as a forest, grassland, or tundra, which consumes the natural fuels and spreads based on environmental conditions. In the Indian context, the phenomenon is intrinsically linked to its unique climatic and vegetative characteristics.

  • Context of Indian Forests:

    • India’s peninsular landmass is dominated by tropical deciduous forests. These forests are characterized by a distinct dry season, typically from March to May, preceding the monsoon. During this period, trees shed their leaves to conserve water, creating a thick, dry layer of leaf litter on the forest floor.
    • According to the Forest Survey of India (FSI), nearly 21.4% of the forest cover in India is prone to frequent forest fires. The tropical thorn forests, and tropical dry deciduous forests are most susceptible.
    • Historical Context: Fire has been a part of India’s forest ecology for millennia. Traditional communities often used fire for land management, such as in shifting cultivation or to promote the growth of fodder grass. However, the scale, frequency, and intensity of fires have increased dramatically in recent decades due to anthropogenic pressures and climatic changes.

  • Causes of Forest Fires in India:

    1. Spells of Dry Climate (Natural and Anthropogenic Amplification):

      • The primary natural cause is the prolonged dry spell before the monsoons. This period sees high temperatures and low humidity, turning the forest floor litter (twigs, leaves, dry grass) into highly combustible fuel.
      • Frictional contact between dry wood, such as bamboo culms rubbing against each other in high winds, can generate enough heat to ignite a fire. Lightning strikes during dry thunderstorms are another natural cause, though they account for a very small percentage of fires in India.
      • Climatic Factors: Events like El Niño can lead to deficient monsoon rainfall, extending the dry season and exacerbating drought conditions, thereby increasing fire vulnerability.

    2. Deforestation:

      • The removal of tree cover fragments the forest, creating open patches. This alters the microclimate by increasing wind speed at the ground level and exposing the undergrowth to direct sunlight.
      • Ecological Impact: Increased solar radiation dries out the soil and leaf litter more rapidly. Higher wind speeds help fires spread faster and make them harder to control. Deforestation also impairs the water cycle, leading to the drying up of streams and springs that could have acted as natural firebreaks. Scholar Reference: Environmental scientist N.H. Ravindranath’s work on climate change and Indian forests has highlighted how forest degradation increases vulnerability to climatic stresses, including fires.

    3. Introduction of Invasive Species:

      • Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii): Promoted extensively by the British during the colonial era for timber and resin, it now dominates large tracts of the sub-Himalayan region. Its needles are resinous, highly inflammable, and decompose very slowly, creating a thick, fire-prone carpet on the forest floor. This suppresses native broad-leafed species that are more fire-resistant.
      • Lantana (Lantana camara): Introduced as an ornamental plant from South America, Lantana has become one of India’s most widespread invasive shrubs. It forms dense, impenetrable thickets that outcompete native undergrowth. In the dry season, this thicket becomes a highly flammable fuel load, contributing to high-intensity fires that can kill mature trees.
      • Eucalyptus: Planted for commercial purposes (pulp and paper industry), Eucalyptus trees have a high water uptake, which can lower the local water table. This leads to drier conditions in the surrounding undergrowth, increasing fire risk. The oil-rich leaves of Eucalyptus are also highly flammable.

    4. Illegal Activities:

      • Organized timber mafias sometimes deliberately set fires. For instance, the felling of green trees above a certain girth is restricted under laws like the Indian Forest Act, 1927. By starting a fire that damages trees, these groups can lobby for permission to fell the ‘damaged’ trees for salvage, providing a legal cover for illegal logging.
      • Fires are also used to destroy evidence of illegal felling, such as stumps and logs. This is a significant governance challenge, often involving collusion with local officials, as highlighted in various reports by environmental watchdogs.

    5. Shifting Cultivation:

      • Practiced by tribal communities, particularly in Northeast India (known as Jhum), Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh (Podu), this is an agroforestry system involving the clearing and burning of forest patches for cultivation.
      • Historical Context: As documented by anthropologists like Verrier Elwin in his work on Indian tribes (e.g., “The Baiga,” 1939), this was a sustainable practice with long fallow cycles (15-20 years) that allowed forests to regenerate. However, due to population pressure and reduced land availability, fallow cycles have shortened to 3-5 years, leading to forest degradation and a higher risk of fires spreading uncontrollably from the burning plots.

    6. Unplanned Rural Settlements and Human Negligence:

      • Settlements on forest fringes rely heavily on forest resources. Accidental fires can be triggered by a variety of activities: sparks from cooking fires, carelessly thrown cigarette butts or bidis, or the burning of agricultural waste in adjacent fields.
      • The collection of Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) like mahua flowers or tendu leaves sometimes involves burning the ground under the trees to get a clear patch, which can easily lead to an uncontrolled fire.

Types of Forests in India (Administrative Classification)

The classification of forests in India is primarily based on legal status as defined by the Indian Forest Act of 1927, a foundational piece of colonial-era legislation. The India State of Forest Report (ISFR) also uses a similar classification.

  • Reserved Forest:

    • This is the most protected category. These are notified by the respective state governments on any forest land or wasteland which is the property of the Government.
    • In a reserved forest, almost all activities like grazing, hunting, and felling of trees are prohibited unless specific permission is granted by a competent forest officer. The intent is to conserve the forest for timber production or environmental protection.
    • A significant portion of India’s National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries is carved out of Reserved Forests, after which they receive the highest degree of protection under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. They constitute over 53% of the total forest area.

  • Protected Forest:

    • These are also notified by the state government. The key difference from Reserved Forests lies in the level of restriction. In Protected Forests, all activities are permitted unless specifically prohibited.
    • The state government issues rules regarding the use of such forests and can stop certain activities (like felling trees or collecting forest produce) to conserve specific trees or the entire forest. This classification allows the government to regulate resource extraction while permitting local communities to access them for their livelihood needs.

  • Village Forest:

    • These are forests assigned by the state government to a village community or a group of villages under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act, 1927. The state cedes its rights over the forest to the community, which is then responsible for its management and protection.
    • The community can use the forest for their needs (fuelwood, fodder, NTFPs) subject to conditions prescribed by the state. This concept is an early precursor to modern community-based conservation models like Joint Forest Management (JFM).

  • Unclassed Forest:

    • This is a residual category consisting of forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals/communities that are not classified as either Reserved or Protected. Administration of these forests varies widely and they are often the most degraded.

  • Key Definitions (As per ISFR):

    • Recorded Forest Area (RFA): This is a legal term. It refers to all lands that are legally recorded as ‘forest’ in government records, irrespective of the actual tree cover on the ground.
    • Forest Cover: This is a technical term based on satellite imagery analysis. It is defined as all land, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of more than 10%, irrespective of legal ownership and land use.
    • Tree Cover: This refers to tree patches (block and linear) outside the RFA, which are less than one hectare in area.

Biodiversity

The term ‘biodiversity’ was coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1985 and popularized by the sociobiologist Edward O. Wilson in his 1988 book, “BioDiversity”. It encompasses the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems.

  • Genetic Diversity:

    • This refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It is the variation of genes within a species.
    • Example: India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice and 1,000 varieties of mango. This genetic variation allows species to adapt to changing environmental conditions. A classic example from Indian ecology is the medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria, growing in different Himalayan ranges, which shows genetic variation in the potency and concentration of the active chemical (reserpine) it produces.

  • Species Diversity:

    • This refers to the variety of different species (species richness) within a region and their relative abundance (species evenness).
    • Species Richness: The number of different species present in an ecosystem. It is measured at three scales, concepts formalized by ecologist R.H. Whittaker (1960):
      1. Alpha Diversity: It is the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem (e.g., the number of tree species in a single forest patch). It is a local measure.
      2. Beta Diversity: It is the comparison of diversity between ecosystems. It measures the rate of change in species composition across habitats or along an environmental gradient (e.g., comparing the species in the forest patch with those in an adjacent grassland). High beta diversity indicates low overlap in species between the two habitats.
      3. Gamma Diversity: It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a large region (e.g., the total number of tree species across all habitats in the entire Western Ghats).
    • Species Evenness: This refers to the relative abundance of individuals of different species. An ecosystem with high evenness would have similar numbers of individuals for each species, whereas low evenness indicates that one or a few species dominate in terms of numbers.

Prelims Pointers

  • Forest Fire:
    • Most fire-prone forests in India: Tropical Dry Deciduous and Tropical Thorn Forests.
    • Dominant cause of forest fires in India: Anthropogenic (human-related), both intentional and unintentional.
    • Invasive species linked to forest fires: Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) in the Himalayas and Lantana camara across peninsular India.
    • Shifting cultivation is known as Jhum in Northeast India and Podu in Andhra Pradesh/Odisha.
  • Forest Classification:
    • The Indian Forest Act, 1927 is the primary legislation for classifying forests into Reserved, Protected, and Village Forests.
    • Reserved Forests: Highest degree of protection; most activities prohibited.
    • Protected Forests: Activities are permitted unless specifically prohibited.
    • Recorded Forest Area (RFA): A legal definition based on government records.
    • Forest Cover: A technical definition based on satellite data; requires a minimum area of 1 hectare and >10% canopy density.
    • Tree Cover: Patches of trees outside RFA with an area of less than 1 hectare.
  • Data from India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021:
      1. Total Forest and Tree Cover: 24.62% of the geographical area of the country.
      1. Area-wise Largest Forest Cover: Madhya Pradesh, followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Maharashtra.
      1. Highest Forest Cover as % of total geographical area: Mizoram (84.53%), followed by Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%), Meghalaya (76.00%).
      1. State with maximum increase in forest cover: Andhra Pradesh, followed by Telangana and Odisha.
      1. Top 10 Countries by Forest Area: Russia > Brazil > Canada > USA > China > Australia > DRC > Indonesia > Peru > India.
  • Biodiversity:
    • The term ‘biodiversity’ was coined by Walter G. Rosen (1985).
    • The term was popularized by Edward O. Wilson.
    • Three levels of biodiversity: Genetic, Species, and Ecosystem.
    • Alpha Diversity: Diversity within a habitat (local).
    • Beta Diversity: Diversity between habitats (turnover).
    • Gamma Diversity: Overall diversity of a region (regional).
    • The concepts of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma diversity were developed by R.H. Whittaker.

Mains Insights

GS Paper III: Environment, Disaster Management

  1. Forest Fires: A Man-Made Disaster Amplified by Climate Change

    • Cause-Effect Linkage: While natural conditions create the prerequisite for fires, over 95% of fires in India are anthropogenic. This establishes forest fires as a man-made disaster. Climate change acts as a threat multiplier by increasing the duration of dry spells, raising temperatures, and increasing the frequency of extreme weather events, thereby making forests more flammable for longer periods.
    • Governance Failure: Forest fires expose weaknesses in forest governance. This includes inadequate funding for fire prevention, lack of modern firefighting equipment, vacancies in the forest department, and a failure to integrate local communities and their traditional knowledge into fire management strategies.
    • Policy Gaps: The National Action Plan on Forest Fires (2018) exists, but its implementation on the ground is weak. There is a need to move from a reactive (firefighting) approach to a proactive one focusing on fuel load management, creating effective fire lines, and using early warning systems (like FSI’s alerts) more effectively.

  2. The Forest Classification Conundrum: Conservation vs. Rights

    • Historiographical Viewpoint: The Indian Forest Act of 1927 is a colonial legacy designed to establish state monopoly over valuable timber resources, often at the expense of the rights of forest-dwelling communities. This top-down, exclusionary approach created conflict and alienated communities from conservation efforts.
    • Debate: FRA vs. IFA: The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA) represents a paradigm shift towards a rights-based approach. It aims to correct the “historical injustice” by recognizing community rights over forest resources. However, there is a constant tussle between the forest bureaucracy (which derives power from the IFA) and tribal communities (empowered by FRA) over control and management of forests, which often hinders effective conservation.
    • Analytical Perspective: The distinction between ‘Recorded Forest Area’ and ‘Forest Cover’ is critical for policy. While forest cover might be increasing in some areas (often due to plantations outside RFA), the quality of natural forests within RFA may be degrading. This highlights the need for policies that focus not just on increasing tree count but on conserving intact, biodiverse ecosystems.

GS Paper I: Indian Society, Geography

  1. Shifting Cultivation: Ecological Menace or Sustainable Tradition?
    • Socio-Ecological Debate: From a purely conservationist viewpoint, ‘slash-and-burn’ is seen as destructive. However, for many indigenous communities, it is a sophisticated agro-ecological system and a part of their cultural identity.
    • Changing Dynamics: The problem is not the practice itself, but its changing context. Shortened fallow cycles due to population pressure and land alienation have made it unsustainable. The debate should shift from banning the practice to promoting longer, sustainable cycles and providing alternative livelihoods. This reflects the complex relationship between tribal society and the environment.

GS Paper II: Governance

  1. Role of Community in Forest Management
    • The classification of ‘Village Forests’ and the later policy of Joint Forest Management (JFM) acknowledge the importance of community participation.
    • Effective implementation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006, by empowering Gram Sabhas to manage their Community Forest Resources (CFR), is seen as a key governance reform. It can lead to better forest protection (as locals have a stake), reduced conflicts, and conservation of traditional ecological knowledge. The failure to effectively implement FRA is a major governance challenge.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. (UPSC Prelims 2023) Question: Consider the following statements:

    1. In India, the biodiversity management committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.
    2. The biodiversity management committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2. Explanation: Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) are statutory bodies established by local bodies under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002. They are crucial for implementing the Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS) mechanism, a key component of the Nagoya Protocol. They maintain People’s Biodiversity Registers and can charge fees for accessing biological resources, ensuring benefits are shared with local communities.

  2. (UPSC Prelims 2021) Question: “R2 Code of Practices” constitutes a tool available for promoting the adoption of (a) environmentally responsible practices in the electronics recycling industry (b) ecological management of “Wetlands of International Importance” under the Ramsar Convention (c) sustainable practices in the cultivation of agricultural crops in degraded lands (d) “Environmental Impact Assessment” in the exploitation of natural resources

    Answer: (a) environmentally responsible practices in the electronics recycling industry. Explanation: While not directly from the provided text, this question tests broad environmental awareness. The R2 (Responsible Recycling) Standard is a leading certification for electronics recyclers, ensuring environmental safety and data security.

  3. (UPSC Prelims 2020) Question: In the context of India, which of the following is/are considered to be practice(s) of eco-friendly agriculture?

    1. Crop diversification
    2. Legume intensification
    3. Tensiometer use
    4. Vertical farming Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 3 only (c) 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Answer: (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4. Explanation: This question relates to biodiversity in an agricultural context. All four practices are eco-friendly. Crop diversification enhances agrobiodiversity, legume intensification improves soil nitrogen, tensiometer use optimizes water, and vertical farming reduces land and water use.

  4. (UPSC Prelims 2019) Question: As per the Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 in India, which one of the following statements is correct? (a) Waste generator has to segregate waste into five categories. (b) The Rules are applicable to notified urban local bodies, notified towns and all industrial townships only. (c) The Rules provide for exact and elaborate criteria for the identification of sites for landfills and waste processing facilities. (d) It is mandatory on the part of the waste generator that the waste generated in one district cannot be moved to another district.

    Answer: (c) The Rules provide for exact and elaborate criteria for the identification of sites for landfills and waste processing facilities. Explanation: This governance-related environmental question tests knowledge of specific regulations. Statement (c) is accurate as the rules lay down detailed technical and environmental guidelines for setting up waste facilities.

  5. (UPSC Prelims 2019) Question: Consider the following statements:

    1. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 recently amended to state that bamboos grown on non-forest lands would not be considered a ‘tree’.
    2. As per the Forest Rights Act 2006, Bamboo is a ‘Minor Forest Produce’.
    3. The Forest Rights Act 2006, allows ownership of minor forest produce to forest dwellers. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only. Explanation: The amendment to declassify bamboo as a tree on non-forest lands was made to the Indian Forest Act, 1927, via the Indian Forest (Amendment) Act, 2017. So statement 1 is correct in its essence but was an amendment, not part of the original act. The question wording “recently amended” is tricky. However, the FRA 2006 explicitly defines bamboo as a Minor Forest Produce (MFP), and the act grants ownership and governance rights over MFPs to Gram Sabhas and forest dwellers. (Note: UPSC’s official answer key was awaited for 2019 at the time, but the widely accepted answer is B, as statement 1’s phrasing can be debated, whereas 2 and 3 are unequivocally correct as per the FRA). [Post-facto check: The amendment was indeed a key event, but the core of the question lies in FRA provisions.] Let’s take a clearer question.

    (Alternative, clearer question from UPSC Prelims 2019) Question: Why is there a great concern about the ‘microbeads’ that are released into the environment? (a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems. (b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in children. (c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop plants in irrigated fields. (d) They are often found to be used as food adulterants. Answer: (a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems. Explanation: Microbeads are a type of microplastic pollutant. They are not biodegradable and are ingested by marine organisms, causing harm and entering the food chain.

Mains

  1. (UPSC Mains 2022, GS-III) Question: Discuss in detail the causes and effects of forest fires. Mention the significance of the National Action Plan on Forest Fires-2018.

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define forest fires and state their increasing frequency and intensity in India, highlighting that they are both a natural phenomenon and a man-made disaster.
    • Causes:
      • Natural: Lightning strikes, friction from bamboo, dry spells (mention El Niño linkage).
      • Anthropogenic (over 95%): Shifting cultivation (Jhum), collection of NTFPs (mahua flowers), clearing paths, illegal felling (using fire to hide evidence or fell damaged trees), negligence (cigarettes, campfires), invasive species (Lantana, Chir Pine) creating fuel load.
    • Effects:
      • Environmental: Loss of biodiversity and habitat, soil erosion, air pollution (black carbon), disruption of hydrological cycles.
      • Economic: Loss of valuable timber and forest produce, impact on livelihoods of forest-dependent communities, cost of firefighting.
      • Social: Displacement of people, health issues due to smoke and pollutants.
    • Significance of National Action Plan on Forest Fires (NAPFF) 2018:
      • Aims to shift focus from reactive firefighting to proactive prevention, preparedness, and post-fire restoration.
      • Emphasizes mapping of fire-prone areas, use of technology (FSI’s pre-warning alerts), and creating a National Forest Fire Information Database.
      • Promotes community participation by involving Gram Sabhas and JFM committees in prevention and management.
      • Focuses on capacity building of forest departments and local communities.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by stating that while plans like NAPFF are crucial, their effective implementation, backed by adequate funding and strong political will, is essential to mitigate the growing threat of forest fires in the face of climate change.

  2. (UPSC Mains 2021, GS-III) Question: Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these revised standards?

  3. (UPSC Mains 2020, GS-III) Question: What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the Government of India?

  4. (UPSC Mains 2019, GS-III) Question: Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment. Analyze the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples.

  5. (UPSC Mains 2018, GS-II) Question: Implementation of the Forest Rights Act, 2006 appears to be a distant dream. Critically examine the hurdles in its implementation.

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Briefly state the objectives of the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 - to recognize and vest forest rights in Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers, correcting a “historical injustice.”
    • Hurdles in Implementation:
      • Institutional Resistance: Reluctance from the forest bureaucracy to cede control over forest lands, viewing the Act as a threat to conservation efforts.
      • Procedural Complexities: The process of filing and verifying claims is cumbersome, requiring extensive documentation that many tribal claimants lack.
      • Lack of Awareness: Insufficient awareness about the provisions of the Act among both the claimants (tribal communities) and the implementing officials (especially at the district and sub-divisional levels).
      • Incorrect Rejection of Claims: High rates of claim rejection on flimsy grounds, often without providing written reasons as required by the law.
      • Dilution of Gram Sabha Powers: The central role of the Gram Sabha in the verification process is often undermined by Forest and Revenue officials.
      • Poor Implementation of Community Rights: While some individual rights have been recognized, the recognition of Community Forest Resource (CFR) rights, which are crucial for sustainable forest management, has been extremely slow.
    • Critical Examination:
      • Argue that the hurdles are not in the Act itself but in its faulty implementation.
      • Counter the conservation vs. rights debate by citing evidence that recognizing community rights often leads to better conservation outcomes.
      • Mention the need for capacity building, simplifying procedures, and strong political will to overcome these hurdles.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that while implementation has been challenging, the FRA remains a landmark piece of legislation. Overcoming the hurdles is critical not only for social justice but also for achieving a more democratic and sustainable model of forest governance.

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