5. Environment Notes 13

Elaborate Notes

Land Degradation

Land degradation is the decline in the productive capacity of land due to various processes, including soil erosion, desertification, and loss of soil fertility. It is a global issue with severe implications for food security, biodiversity, and ecosystem services.

Defining Degradation Levels:
- Slight degradation: A minimal loss of productivity, often reversible with simple changes in land management. Productivity loss is estimated to be up to 10%.
- Moderate degradation: A significant decline in productivity (10-50%), requiring more substantial interventions for restoration. For instance, the salinization of soils in the Indo-Gangetic plains due to the Green Revolution’s irrigation practices can be classified here.
- Severe degradation: A drastic loss of productivity (over 50%), where restoration is often economically or technically unfeasible. The badlands of the Chambal valley represent an extreme case of severe degradation. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has extensively documented these levels in its global assessments.
Reasons for Land Degradation:
- Anthropogenic Causes:
  - Deforestation: The large-scale removal of forests for agriculture, urbanization, and timber. Historically, colonial forest policies in India, such as the Indian Forest Act of 1878, commercialized forests, leading to extensive deforestation. Post-independence, the pressure of a growing population accelerated this trend. Deforestation exposes topsoil to erosional agents, leading to nutrient loss. A study by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) in its biennial ‘State of Forest Report’ continuously monitors forest cover and its impact.
  - Overgrazing: Excessive grazing by livestock beyond the carrying capacity of the rangeland. This is particularly prevalent in arid and semi-arid regions like Rajasthan and Gujarat, where traditional pastoral communities face shrinking common property resources (CPRs), as highlighted by ecologist Madhav Gadgil.
  - Excessive Groundwater Extraction: This leads to a fall in the water table, causing land subsidence and increased soil salinity, especially in coastal areas (seawater intrusion). The agricultural belts of Punjab and Haryana, the epicentres of the Green Revolution, now face this critical issue.
  - Mining and Construction Activities: Open-cast mining removes vegetation and topsoil, leaving the land infertile and prone to erosion. The mining areas of Jharkhand and Odisha are classic examples. Similarly, large-scale infrastructure projects often neglect environmental safeguards, accelerating degradation.
- Natural Causes:
  - Climatic Factors:
    - Offshore Trade Winds & Cold Ocean Currents: In subtropical regions (e.g., the west coasts of continents like South America’s Atacama Desert), offshore trade winds push surface water away, allowing cold, deep water to upwell. This creates cool, stable atmospheric conditions (temperature inversion) that inhibit cloud formation and rainfall, leading to natural aridity.
    - Subsidence of Air: In the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts (around 30° N/S latitude), air from the upper troposphere descends (subsides), gets compressed, and warms, leading to dry, stable conditions that create the world’s major hot deserts like the Sahara and the Thar.
  - Geomorphological and Tectonic Factors:
    - Continental Position & Drift: The interior location of continents, far from oceanic moisture sources, creates natural aridity (continentality effect). Over geological time, plate tectonics and continental drift have shifted landmasses into different climatic zones, influencing long-term patterns of degradation and desertification.
    - Rain Shadow Effect: Mountain barriers force moist air to rise and precipitate on the windward side, leaving the leeward side dry. The Deccan Plateau in India is a prominent example, lying in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats.
  - Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions:
    - Thermohaline Circulation: This global ocean ‘conveyor belt’ redistributes heat and influences long-term climate patterns, which in turn affect land productivity and aridity over millennia.
    - El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) & Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): These are periodic variations in sea surface temperatures that disrupt normal weather patterns, causing extreme events like droughts and floods, which exacerbate land degradation. For example, severe El Niño events have been linked to widespread droughts in India.

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the detachment, transportation, and deposition of soil particles from the land surface by agents like water and wind. It is a primary driver of land degradation.

Soil Profile: The vertical section of the soil from the ground surface downwards to where the soil meets the underlying rock is called the soil profile. It typically consists of layers or horizons:
- O Horizon (Organic): Surface layer of organic matter.
- A Horizon (Topsoil): Rich in organic matter, crucial for plant growth. This is the layer most affected by erosion.
- B Horizon (Subsoil): Zone of accumulation of materials leached from above.
- C Horizon (Regolith): Partially weathered parent material.
- R Horizon (Parent Rock/Bedrock): Unweathered rock.
Agents and Processes of Erosion:
- Wind Erosion: Predominant in arid and semi-arid regions.
  - Deflation: The process of lifting and removing loose particles like dust and sand by wind.
  - Abrasion: The process where wind-borne particles strike and wear away rock surfaces.
- Water Erosion: The most widespread form of erosion, occurring in various stages. The sequence represents an increasing intensity of erosion.
  - 1) Splash Erosion: The initial stage, caused by the impact of raindrops, which dislodges soil particles and breaks down soil aggregates.
  - 2) Sheet Erosion: The uniform removal of a thin layer of topsoil by overland flow or runoff. It is often inconspicuous but can cause significant long-term damage.
  - 3) Rill Erosion: As runoff concentrates, it cuts small, well-defined channels called rills. These are shallow enough to be removed by normal tillage.
  - 4) Gully Erosion: When rills are not addressed, they deepen and widen to form gullies, which are too large to be corrected by normal cultivation. The badlands of the Chambal and Yamuna ravines are classic examples of advanced gully erosion.
  - 5) Slip Erosion (Landslides): This occurs on steep slopes where a large mass of soil and rock moves downward due to gravity, often triggered by heavy rainfall or earthquakes. The Himalayan region is highly susceptible to this.

Extent of Land Degradation in India

According to the “Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India” (published by the Space Applications Centre, ISRO, 2021), about 97.85 million hectares (mha), or 29.7% of India’s Total Geographical Area (TGA), is undergoing land degradation.

Himalayan Region: Prone to landslides and soil erosion due to steep slopes, fragile geology, and anthropogenic pressures like deforestation for infrastructure projects (e.g., road construction) and unsustainable tourism.
Punjab & Haryana: Intensive agriculture post-Green Revolution has led to waterlogging, soil salinization, and alkalization due to over-irrigation and poor drainage. Depletion of groundwater is a critical concern.
Rajasthan & Gujarat: Face natural aridity, exacerbated by wind erosion (desertification), overgrazing, and mining activities. The expansion of the Thar desert is a significant issue.
Eastern & North-Eastern Region:
- Shifting Cultivation (Jhum): A traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice in the North-East. While historically sustainable with long fallow periods, increasing population pressure has shortened these cycles, leading to deforestation, soil erosion, and loss of biodiversity.
- High rainfall and hilly terrain make the region highly susceptible to water erosion and mass movements.

Methods of Conservation

Conservation strategies aim to halt and reverse land degradation, restoring ecological balance and productivity.

Land Restoration:
- Active Restoration: Involves direct human intervention, such as planting native species, reintroducing wildlife, and amending soil. It is faster but costlier. The restoration of mined-out areas by planting tolerant species is an example.
- Passive Restoration (Natural Regeneration): Involves removing the sources of degradation (e.g., fencing off an area to prevent grazing) and allowing the ecosystem to recover naturally. It is slower and cheaper but may not be effective in severely degraded areas.
Forestry-Based Approaches:
- Reforestation & Afforestation: Reforestation is replanting trees in areas that were previously forested, while afforestation is planting trees in areas that were not. These increase forest cover, sequester carbon, and stabilize soil.
- Agroforestry: An integrated land-use system that combines trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock. The National Agroforestry Policy (2014) promotes this practice.
  - Benefits: It provides diversified income, acts as a windbreak (shelterbelts), enriches soil through nitrogen fixation and litterfall, promotes carbon sequestration, and reduces pressure on natural forests.
  - Allelopathy: A biological phenomenon where an organism produces biochemicals that influence the growth of others. In agroforestry, species like eucalyptus or walnut are carefully selected to suppress weeds naturally.
- Social Forestry: Afforestation on common lands (e.g., village pastures, roadsides) with community participation, aimed at meeting local needs for fuel, fodder, and timber.
- Joint Forest Management (JFM): A pioneering co-management model that began with the Arabari project in West Bengal in 1972. It involves a partnership between local communities (organized as Village Forest Committees) and the Forest Department to protect and manage adjacent forests. In return, communities get a share of the benefits, primarily from Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP).
Agricultural Practices:
- Mulching: Covering the topsoil with organic (straw, wood chips) or synthetic materials to conserve soil moisture, regulate soil temperature, and suppress weeds.
- Terrace Cultivation: Cutting step-like platforms (terraces) on steep slopes to slow down runoff and reduce soil erosion. It is widely practiced in the Himalayas and other mountainous regions.
- Contour Bunding/Ploughing: Creating earthen bunds or ploughing along the contours of a slope (i.e., at the same elevation). This creates a barrier to water flow, promoting infiltration and preventing soil loss.
- Mixed Cropping/Intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. This practice enhances biodiversity, improves soil health (e.g., planting legumes with cereals), and reduces the risk of total crop failure.

Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN)

Concept: LDN is a state where the amount and quality of land resources remain stable or increase over time. It is a key target under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
Goal: The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15, Target 15.3, aims “to combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world by 2030.” India has committed to restoring 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.

Tiger Conservation in India

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is an apex predator and an “umbrella species,” whose conservation also protects the entire ecosystem it inhabits.

Conservation Efforts in India:
- Project Tiger (1973): Launched as a centrally sponsored scheme to ensure a viable tiger population in their natural habitats. It is implemented by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
  - NTCA: A statutory body established in 2005 under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, following the recommendations of the Tiger Task Force.
- Tiger Census: A quadrennial (every 4 years) survey to estimate the tiger population. The latest survey (All India Tiger Estimation - 2022) reported a minimum of 3,167 tigers. The exercise is coordinated by NTCA and the Wildlife Institute of India (WII).
- M-STrIPES (Monitoring System for Tigers’ Intensive Protection and Ecological Status): A software-based monitoring system using GPS, GIS, and remote sensing to patrol tiger reserves effectively and monitor tiger populations and habitats.
- Management Effectiveness Evaluation (MEETR): A tool used to assess the performance of tiger reserves based on a set of criteria, helping to improve management practices.
International Initiatives:
- Global Tiger Forum (GTF): An inter-governmental international body established in 1993 in New Delhi, dedicated exclusively to the conservation of tigers in the wild.
- Global Tiger Initiative (GTI): An alliance of governments, international organizations, and the private sector, launched in 2008 to save wild tigers from extinction.
- St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation (2010): A historic summit where 13 tiger range countries committed to doubling the wild tiger population by 2022 (the TX2 goal). India successfully achieved this target ahead of schedule.
- CA|TS (Conservation Assured | Tiger Standards): A global accreditation scheme that sets best practices and standards for managing tiger sites. Several tiger reserves in India have received CA|TS accreditation.

Prelims Pointers

Land Degradation Levels: Slight (<10% fertility loss), Moderate (10-50%), Severe (>50%).
Natural Causes of Aridity: Subsidence of air in Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts, Rain shadow effect of mountains, Cold ocean currents.
Types of Water Erosion: Splash → Sheet → Rill → Gully Erosion.
Badlands: A type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary rocks have been extensively eroded. Example: Chambal Valley.
Land Degradation in India: As per ISRO’s 2021 Atlas, 29.7% of India’s Total Geographical Area is degraded.
Jhum Cultivation: A form of shifting agriculture practiced in North-East India.
Allelopathy: The chemical inhibition of one plant by another, due to the release into the environment of allelochemicals.
Joint Forest Management (JFM): A partnership between the Forest Department and local communities. It originated from the Arabari experiment, West Bengal (1972).
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN): A state where land resources remain stable or increase. It is a target under UNCCD and SDG 15.3 (to be achieved by 2030).
Project Tiger: Launched in 1973. It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA): A statutory body under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It implements Project Tiger.
Tiger Census in India: Conducted every four years. The 2022 census estimated a minimum of 3,167 tigers.
M-STrIPES: A software-based monitoring system for tiger conservation.
St. Petersburg Declaration (2010): Aimed to double the wild tiger population by 2022 (TX2 goal).
CA|TS: Conservation Assured | Tiger Standards, a global accreditation tool for tiger sites.
Global Tiger Forum (GTF): An inter-governmental body with its headquarters in New Delhi.
There are a total of 55 Tiger Reserves in India (as of late 2023).

Mains Insights

Connecting Land Degradation, Agriculture, and Socio-Economic Issues (GS-I & GS-III)

Vicious Cycle: Land degradation reduces agricultural productivity, leading to lower incomes for farmers. This poverty forces them to adopt unsustainable practices (e.g., over-extraction of groundwater, reduced fallow periods), further accelerating degradation. This creates a vicious cycle of poverty and environmental degradation.
Food Security Threat: As fertile land degrades, India’s capacity to feed its growing population is challenged. It puts pressure on remaining productive lands and can lead to increased food prices and import dependency.
Climate Change Linkages:
- Cause: Degraded lands have lower carbon sequestration potential. Deforestation, a major cause of degradation, directly contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.
- Effect: Climate change, with its erratic rainfall and increased frequency of extreme weather events (droughts, floods), exacerbates soil erosion and desertification.
Forced Migration: In severely degraded regions, agriculture becomes unviable, leading to rural distress and forcing people to migrate to urban areas in search of livelihoods, putting pressure on urban infrastructure. This can be analyzed as a push factor in migration (GS-I).

Debates in Conservation Strategies (GS-III)

Community-led vs. State-centric Conservation:
- The traditional “fortress conservation” model, which excludes local communities from protected areas, has often failed, leading to human-wildlife conflict and alienation.
- Models like Joint Forest Management (JFM) and Community Reserves represent a shift towards participatory conservation. However, the effectiveness of JFM is debated. Critics argue that it often involves only superficial participation, with Forest Departments retaining ultimate control, and benefits to the community being minimal.
Development vs. Environment:
- This is a classic dilemma, particularly in the context of mining and infrastructure projects in forested or ecologically sensitive areas.
- Arguments for Development: Proponents argue that these projects are essential for economic growth, employment, and energy security.
- Arguments for Environment: Opponents highlight the irreversible damage to biodiversity, displacement of indigenous communities (violating the Forest Rights Act, 2006), and long-term ecological costs like land degradation and water pollution.
- Way Forward: The concept of Sustainable Development seeks to balance these interests through robust Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), fair compensation, and benefit-sharing mechanisms, though its implementation remains a challenge.

Ethical Dimensions of Environmental Conservation (GS-IV)

Intergenerational Equity: The current generation has an ethical responsibility to conserve natural resources like fertile soil and biodiversity for future generations. Unsustainable practices that lead to land degradation violate this principle.
Anthropocentrism vs. Ecocentrism:
- An anthropocentric view values nature only for its utility to humans (e.g., as a resource for agriculture or industry).
- An ecocentric view recognizes the intrinsic value of all components of an ecosystem, irrespective of their use to humans. Tiger conservation as an “umbrella species” reflects an ecocentric approach, where protecting one species helps conserve the entire ecosystem.
Environmental Justice: The impacts of land degradation are disproportionately borne by the poor and marginalized communities (e.g., small farmers, tribal populations) who depend directly on natural resources for their livelihoods. Policies must ensure that conservation efforts do not further marginalize these communities but empower them as stewards of the environment.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

With reference to the ‘New York Declaration on Forests’, which of the following statements are correct? (UPSC Prelims 2021)
1. It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in 2014.
2. It endorses a global timeline to end the loss of forests.
3. It is a legally binding international declaration.
4. It is endorsed by governments, big companies and indigenous communities.
5. India was one of the signatories at its inception.
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 5 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 5

Answer: (a) The New York Declaration on Forests is a voluntary and non-legally binding political declaration. India did not sign it. Statements 1, 2, and 4 are correct.
In the context of India, which of the following is/are considered to be practice(s) of eco-friendly agriculture? (UPSC Prelims 2020)
1. Crop diversification
2. Legume intensification
3. Tensiometer use
4. Vertical farming
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 3 only (c) 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: (d) All four practices contribute to sustainable and eco-friendly agriculture. Crop diversification and legume intensification enhance soil health (related to preventing degradation). Tensiometer use optimizes irrigation, preventing waterlogging. Vertical farming increases productivity per unit area, reducing pressure on land.
What is/are the advantage/advantages of zero tillage in agriculture? (UPSC Prelims 2020)
1. Sowing of wheat is possible without burning the residue of the previous crop.
2. Without the need for a nursery of rice saplings, direct planting of paddy seeds in the wet soil is possible.
3. Carbon sequestration in the soil is possible.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (d) Zero tillage is a conservation agriculture practice that prevents soil erosion and degradation. It allows direct sowing, retains crop residue (which becomes mulch and sequesters carbon), and reduces soil disturbance. All three statements are advantages.
Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India? (UPSC Prelims 2019)
1. Genetic predisposition of some people
2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases
3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming
4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

Answer: (b) The question is not directly related but touches upon unsustainable practices. The most direct causes of multi-drug resistance are the misuse/overuse of antibiotics in humans (incorrect doses) and their widespread use in livestock farming to promote growth.
Consider the following statements: (UPSC Prelims 2019)
1. As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels.
2. People’s participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (a) The CAF Act, 2016 provides for the establishment of a National CAMPA and State CAMPAs. However, while the rules encourage consultation with gram sabhas, people’s participation is not explicitly “mandatory” in the way implied for all activities under the Act’s text. So, statement 2 is not strictly correct.

Mains

What are the causes and effects of land degradation in India? Enumerate the measures taken by the government to combat this menace. (UPSC Mains Question, adapted)

Answer: Introduction: Land degradation is the temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of land. According to ISRO’s 2021 Atlas, approximately 29.7% of India’s total geographical area is undergoing degradation. This poses a significant threat to food security, biodiversity, and rural livelihoods.

Body: Causes of Land Degradation:
- Anthropogenic Causes:
  - Deforestation: For agriculture, urbanization, and industrial needs, leading to soil erosion.
  - Unsustainable Agriculture: Over-irrigation causing waterlogging and salinization (e.g., in Punjab), and excessive use of chemical fertilizers degrading soil health.
  - Overgrazing: Reduces vegetative cover, making soil vulnerable to erosion, especially in arid states like Rajasthan.
  - Mining and Quarrying: Destroys land topography and pollutes soil and water resources (e.g., in Jharkhand, Odisha).
- Natural Causes:
  - Water and Wind Erosion: Natural processes accelerated by human activities. Water erosion is dominant in hilly regions, while wind erosion affects arid areas.
  - Natural Aridity: Large parts of Western India are naturally arid or semi-arid.
  - Mass Movements: Landslides and slips in geologically fragile areas like the Himalayas.
Effects of Land Degradation:
- Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Leads to food insecurity and loss of income for farmers.
- Loss of Biodiversity: Destruction of habitats affects flora and fauna.
- Increased Climate Change Vulnerability: Reduced carbon sequestration capacity and increased risk of desertification.
- Water Scarcity: Lower water infiltration rates and siltation of water bodies.
- Socio-Economic Impacts: Leads to rural distress, poverty, and forced migration.
Government Measures to Combat Land Degradation:
- Policy & Programs:
  1. National Afforestation Programme (NAP): Focuses on the afforestation of degraded forest lands.
  2. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Aims to improve water-use efficiency (“Per Drop More Crop”), reducing waterlogging.
  3. Soil Health Card Scheme: Provides farmers with information on soil nutrient status to promote balanced fertilizer use.
  4. National Mission for a Green India (GIM): Part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change, aimed at protecting and enhancing forest cover.
- International Commitments:
  1. Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN): India has committed to achieving LDN by 2030 and restoring 26 million hectares of degraded land as part of its UNCCD commitment.
  2. Bonn Challenge: A global effort to bring 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested land into restoration by 2020 and 350 million by 2030.
Conclusion: Combating land degradation requires an integrated approach combining technological solutions, policy interventions, and community participation. Empowering local communities through models like Joint Forest Management and promoting sustainable agricultural practices are crucial for achieving Land Degradation Neutrality and ensuring a sustainable future.
How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in the conservation of flora and fauna? (UPSC Mains 2018, GS-III)

Answer: Introduction: India is a mega-diverse country, hosting 7-8% of the world’s recorded species. This rich biodiversity varies across its distinct biogeographic zones, from the Himalayas in the north to the coastal ecosystems in the south. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002, provides a comprehensive legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of this natural heritage.

Body: Variation of Biodiversity in India:
- Trans-Himalayan Region: High-altitude cold desert with sparse vegetation and fauna like Snow Leopard and Wild Yak.
- Himalayan Region: Exhibits altitudinal zonation, from tropical forests at the foothills to alpine meadows. Home to species like the Red Panda and Himalayan Tahr.
- Indian Desert (Thar): Arid conditions support xerophytic vegetation and adapted fauna like the Great Indian Bustard and Blackbuck.
- Gangetic Plains: Fertile alluvial plains with rich agricultural biodiversity and riverine ecosystems (e.g., Gangetic Dolphin).
- Deccan Peninsula & Western/Eastern Ghats: The Ghats are global biodiversity hotspots with high endemism in amphibians, reptiles, and plants.
- Coastal and Marine Zones: Mangrove ecosystems (e.g., Sundarbans), coral reefs (e.g., Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep), and rich marine life.
Role of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 in Conservation: The Act was enacted to give effect to the principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
- Three-Tier Institutional Structure:
  1. National Biodiversity Authority (NBA): At the national level, it regulates access to biological resources and advises the government.
  2. State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs): At the state level, they advise state governments and manage biodiversity heritage sites.
  3. Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs): At the local body level, their primary role is to document local biodiversity through ‘People’s Biodiversity Registers’ (PBRs) and regulate its access.
- Conservation Mechanisms:
  1. Regulation of Access: The Act regulates access to biological resources and associated traditional knowledge to prevent biopiracy. Prior approval from the NBA is mandatory for foreign entities.
  2. Benefit Sharing: It mandates Fair and Equitable Benefit Sharing (FEBS) from the commercial utilization of biological resources with the local communities who are conservers of these resources.
  3. Designation of Biodiversity Heritage Sites: The Act allows for the declaration of areas of significant biodiversity as Heritage Sites for their conservation.
  4. Protection of Traditional Knowledge: By involving BMCs and maintaining PBRs, the Act helps document and protect traditional knowledge associated with biodiversity.
Conclusion: The Biological Diversity Act, 2002, provides a robust framework that moves beyond mere protectionism to a model of conservation and sustainable use with equitable benefit-sharing. Its effective implementation, by strengthening the BMCs and ensuring true devolution of power, is crucial for safeguarding India’s invaluable flora and fauna for future generations.
Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how understanding this concept is vital while planning for the sustainable development of a region. (UPSC Mains 2019, GS-III)
What are the main causes of desertification in India? Examine the governmental efforts to combat it. (UPSC Mains Question, adapted)
Critically examine the role of community participation in wildlife conservation, with special reference to Project Tiger in India. (UPSC Mains Question, adapted)

GS Notes