GS Notes

5. Environment Notes 16

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Elaborate Notes

Wetlands: Functions, Conservation, and Global Significance

Wetlands are transitional lands between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface, or the land is covered by shallow water. As per the Ramsar Convention’s definition, they encompass a wide variety of habitats such as marshes, fens, peatlands, and water bodies, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt.

  • Ecological Functions of Wetlands:
    • Coastal Protection: Wetlands, especially mangroves and salt marshes, act as natural barriers. Their dense root systems bind the soil, reducing the erosive power of waves and currents. For instance, studies following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, such as those published in journals like Science (Daniel H. Alongi, 2008), demonstrated that coastal areas with healthy mangrove forests suffered significantly less damage and loss of life.
    • Groundwater Recharge: Wetlands function like sponges, holding surface water and allowing it to percolate into the ground, thereby replenishing underground aquifers. This process is crucial in both arid and semi-arid regions for maintaining water tables. The hydraulic conductivity of the wetland soil and the underlying geology are key factors in this process.
    • Nutrient Cycling and Water Purification: They are often referred to as the “kidneys of the landscape.” They trap sediments and filter pollutants like heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial waste. The biogeochemical processes involving wetland plants (phytoremediation) and microorganisms break down organic waste and recycle nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, preventing eutrophication in downstream water bodies.

The Ramsar Convention and its Criteria

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, known as the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971. It provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. A site is designated as a Ramsar Site if it meets at least one of the nine criteria for identifying Wetlands of International Importance.

  • Criteria for Designation:
    • Criterion 1: Contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type. Example: Loktak Lake in Manipur is the largest freshwater lake in Northeast India, famous for its phumdis (heterogeneous mass of vegetation, soil, and organic matter at various stages of decomposition).
    • Criterion 2: Supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species. Example: Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan provides a habitat for the critically endangered Siberian Crane during its winter migration.
    • Criterion 3: Supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region. Example: The Sundarbans, straddling India and Bangladesh, supports an exceptional biodiversity, including the Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris).
    • Criterion 4: Supports species at a critical stage in their life cycles or provides refuge during adverse conditions. Example: Chilika Lake in Odisha serves as a crucial breeding and wintering ground for millions of migratory birds from the Arctic and Central Asia.
    • Criterion 5: Regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds. Example: Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu consistently hosts large congregations of waterbirds.
    • Criterion 6: Regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.
    • Criterion 7: Supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, and their life-history stages. Example: The East Kolkata Wetlands are renowned for their traditional sewage-fed fisheries that support a significant local fish supply.
    • Criterion 8: Is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery, and/or migration path. Example: The Vembanad-Kol Wetland in Kerala is a critical habitat for various finfish and shellfish, including commercially important prawn species.
    • Criterion 9: Regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of wetland-dependent non-avian animal species.

The Montreux Record

Established at the Conference of the Contracting Parties in Brisbane, Australia, in 1996, the Montreux Record is a principal tool under the Ramsar Convention. It is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution, or other human interference.

  • Purpose and Function: Its primary purpose is to prioritize such sites for national and international conservation attention. Inclusion in the Record is not a punitive measure but a recognition of ecological stress, which can help mobilize technical and financial assistance.
  • Indian Sites:
    • Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan: Placed on the Record in 1990 due to water shortages and an unbalanced grazing regime.
    • Loktak Lake, Manipur: Added in 1993 due to problems like deforestation in the catchment area, infestation of water hyacinth, and pollution.
    • Chilika Lake, Odisha: Was placed on the Record in 1993 due to siltation and choking of the inlet mouth, but was subsequently removed in 2002 following successful restoration efforts by the Chilika Development Authority, making it the first Ramsar site in Asia to be removed from the Record.

India’s Wetland Conservation Efforts

  • National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP), 1986: An early centrally-sponsored scheme to provide financial and technical assistance to states for the conservation of identified wetlands. Its focus was on activities like catchment area treatment and desilting.
  • National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP), 2001: Focused specifically on polluted and degraded lakes in urban and semi-urban areas, distinct from the broader scope of the NWCP.
  • National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA), 2015: A significant policy integration that merged the NWCP and NLCP to create a unified conservation framework, aiming for holistic management of both lakes and wetlands.
  • Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017: These rules superseded the 2010 version. A key change was the decentralization of wetland management by entrusting states with the responsibility of identifying and notifying wetlands. This move has been debated; while praised for promoting federalism, critics like the environmental lawyer Ritwick Dutta argue it has diluted central oversight and the definition of wetlands, potentially leaving many smaller but ecologically vital wetlands unprotected.
  • Centre for Wetland Conservation and Management (CWCM), 2021: Established under the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM) in Chennai, this dedicated centre serves as a knowledge hub to support the implementation of the NPCA and other wetland-related policies through research, capacity building, and policy advice.

Mangrove Forest Ecosystem

Mangroves are halophytic (salt-tolerant) trees and shrubs that grow in the intertidal zones of tropical and subtropical coastlines. They form a unique and highly productive ecosystem.

  • Physiological Adaptations:

    • Salt Management: Mangroves have physiological mechanisms to cope with salinity, such as salt-excluding roots and salt-excreting glands on their leaves.
    • Aerial Roots: To survive in anoxic (oxygen-poor) waterlogged soil, they have developed specialized roots:
      • Pneumatophores: These are erect, snorkel-like roots that grow upwards from the main root system to protrude above the water surface, facilitating gaseous exchange. Avicennia species are classic examples.
      • Prop/Stilt Roots: These adventitious roots grow from the lower trunk and anchor the tree firmly in the soft, unstable substrate, providing mechanical support. The genus Rhizophora is well-known for these.
    • Viviparous Reproduction: This is a unique reproductive strategy where the seed germinates while still attached to the parent tree. The developed propagule (sapling) then drops into the water and either takes root below the parent or floats to a suitable location. This increases the chances of successful establishment in a harsh environment.

  • Ecological Importance:

    • Carbon Sequestration: Mangrove ecosystems are highly efficient carbon sinks, storing vast amounts of “blue carbon” in their biomass and soil. Research by Donato et al. (2011) in Nature Geoscience highlighted that mangroves store significantly more carbon per unit area than most terrestrial forests.
    • Biodiversity Hotspots: They provide critical nursery habitats for numerous species of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. The complex root structure offers refuge from predators. They also support a wide array of bird species, reptiles, and mammals.
    • Coastal Geomorphology: The intricate root network traps sediments from rivers and tides, stabilizing the coastline and contributing to land accretion, sometimes forming tidal flats.
    • Water Purification: Similar to other wetlands, mangroves filter pollutants and excess nutrients from terrestrial runoff, protecting sensitive marine ecosystems like coral reefs and seagrass beds from sedimentation and eutrophication.

  • Mangrove Forests in India (as per Forest Survey of India Report, 2021):

    • Sundarbans, West Bengal: The largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is home to the iconic Royal Bengal Tiger, which has adapted to the unique saline environment.
    • Bhitarkanika, Odisha: The second-largest mangrove ecosystem in India, known for its high concentration of saltwater crocodiles and as a nesting site for Olive Ridley sea turtles at nearby Gahirmatha beach.
    • Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat: Characterized by arid conditions, leading to stunted or “dwarf” mangroves, predominantly of the Avicennia marina species.
    • Pichavaram, Tamil Nadu: One of the largest mangrove forests in India, located between two estuaries, forming a complex network of channels and islets.

Estuarine Ecosystem

An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. They are classic examples of ecotones—transitional zones between two different ecosystems (freshwater river and saline marine).

  • Characteristics:
    • Brackish Water: The defining feature is the salinity gradient, which varies spatially (from the river mouth to the sea) and temporally (with tides and river discharge). This fluctuating salinity creates a challenging environment for organisms.
    • High Productivity: Estuaries are among the most productive natural habitats in the world. The constant influx of nutrients from both rivers and the sea supports extensive food webs.
    • Geomorphological Formation: Estuaries can form through various geological processes:
      • Drowned River Valleys (Coastal Plain Estuaries): Formed by the rise in sea level post-Ice Age, which flooded river valleys. The Chesapeake Bay in the USA is a prime example.
      • Bar-built Estuaries: Created when sandbars or barrier islands build up parallel to the coastline, partially cutting off a lagoon from the sea. Chilika Lake in India can be considered in this category.
      • Tectonic Estuaries: Formed by the subsidence of land due to crustal movements. San Francisco Bay is a well-known example.

Prelims Pointers

  • The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands was adopted in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971.
  • The Montreux Record is a register of Ramsar sites facing significant ecological changes. It was established at the Brisbane Conference of Parties in 1996.
  • Indian sites currently on the Montreux Record are Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
  • Chilika Lake (Odisha) was removed from the Montreux Record in 2002.
  • Key Government Initiatives and Years:
    1. National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP): 1986
    2. National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP): 2001
    3. National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA): 2015 (by merging NWCP and NLCP)
    4. Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules: 2010, revised in 2017.
    5. Centre for Wetland Conservation and Management (CWCM) established in Chennai in 2021.
  • Mangrove Adaptations:
    • Pneumatophores: Specialized aerial roots for respiration (e.g., Avicennia).
    • Prop/Stilt Roots: Adventitious roots for support in soft soil (e.g., Rhizophora).
    • Vivipary: A mode of reproduction where seeds germinate while attached to the parent tree.
  • Mangrove Distribution in India (Highest to Lower):
    1. West Bengal (Sundarbans) has the highest mangrove cover.
    2. Gujarat (Gulf of Kutch) has the second-highest cover.
    3. Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
    4. Odisha (Bhitarkanika).
  • Key Mangrove Species in India:
    • Sundari (Heritiera fomes) - Endangered species found in Sundarbans.
    • Rhizophora - Known for prop roots.
    • Avicennia - Known for pneumatophores.
  • Estuaries are transitional zones (ecotones) between riverine and marine environments, characterized by brackish water.
  • Estuaries are generally deeper than lagoons.

Mains Insights

1. Governance and Conservation Challenges of Wetlands:

  • Federalism and Decentralization: The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, mark a significant shift from central to state-level governance.
    • Pros: This aligns with the principle of cooperative federalism, potentially allowing for more context-specific and efficient management by local authorities who better understand the regional ecology.
    • Cons: Critics argue this has led to a dilution of protective measures. The lack of a strong central oversight mechanism, ambiguous definitions, and the absence of a mandatory appeal process against state decisions could leave many wetlands vulnerable to encroachment and degradation for developmental projects.
  • Development vs. Conservation Dilemma: Wetlands are often viewed as wastelands and are prime targets for urban expansion, agriculture, and industrial development. The East Kolkata Wetlands, despite being a Ramsar site, face continuous threats from real estate development. The challenge for policymakers is to integrate the economic value of wetland ecosystem services (e.g., flood control, water purification, fisheries) into developmental planning to justify their conservation.
  • Community Participation: The success of wetland conservation is intrinsically linked to the involvement of local communities. The traditional wisdom of communities, like the fishery practices in East Kolkata Wetlands, demonstrates sustainable use. A top-down bureaucratic approach often fails; therefore, empowering local bodies and ensuring benefit-sharing is crucial for long-term success.

2. Mangroves: A Key to Climate Resilience and Coastal Economy:

  • Blue Carbon Initiative: Mangroves are a critical component of “Blue Carbon” ecosystems. Their role in sequestering atmospheric carbon is disproportionately high compared to their geographical extent. Conserving and restoring mangroves can be a cost-effective, nature-based solution for India to meet its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. Schemes like the recent MISHTI (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes) in the Union Budget 2023-24 reflect this growing recognition.
  • Disaster Risk Reduction: Mangroves act as bioshields, mitigating the impact of cyclones, storm surges, and tsunamis. Investing in mangrove conservation is a direct investment in disaster risk reduction, aligning with the Sendai Framework. The devastation caused by Super Cyclone Amphan (2020) in the Sundarbans highlighted both the protective role of mangroves and their vulnerability to extreme weather events.
  • Threats and Management: The primary threats to mangroves in India are aquaculture (shrimp farming), coastal development (ports, industries), pollution, and changes in freshwater flow due to upstream dams. An Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) approach is required, which harmonizes economic activities with ecological conservation rather than viewing them in isolation.

3. Estuarine Ecosystems: The Neglected Transition Zones:

  • Cumulative Impact of Upstream Activities: Estuaries are at the receiving end of entire river basins. Pollution from industries and cities upstream, agricultural runoff containing pesticides, and reduced freshwater flow due to dams and barrages can drastically alter their salinity, nutrient levels, and sediment deposition, impacting their biodiversity and productivity. The health of an estuary is a direct indicator of the health of its entire river basin.
  • Conflict Over Resources: Estuaries are hotspots of economic activity, including fishing, aquaculture, and shipping (dredging for ports). These activities often conflict with each other and with ecological conservation. For example, dredging can destroy benthic habitats and increase water turbidity, harming fisheries. Sustainable management requires a robust regulatory framework that can resolve these user conflicts and ensure ecological flow (e-flow) from rivers.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims Questions

  1. If a wetland of international importance is brought under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply? (UPSC CSE 2014 - Slightly older but highly relevant) (a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur in the wetland as a result of human interference. (b) The country in which the wetland is located should enact a law to prohibit any human activity within five kilometers from the edge of the wetland. (c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural practices and traditions of certain communities living in its vicinity and therefore the cultural diversity thereon should not be destroyed. (d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’. Answer: (a) The Montreux Record is a register of Ramsar sites where adverse ecological changes have been observed or are likely, primarily due to human activities.

  2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2019)

    1. Under Ramsar Convention, it is mandatory on the part of the Government of India to protect and conserve all the wetlands in the territory of India.
    2. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government of India based on the recommendations of Ramsar Convention.
    3. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 also encompass the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) Statement 1 is incorrect; the Convention encourages, but does not make it mandatory, to protect all wetlands, only the designated Ramsar sites. Statements 2 and 3 are correct regarding the 2010 rules.

  3. Which one of the following has been constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986? (UPSC CSE 2022) (a) Central Water Commission (b) Central Ground Water Board (c) Central Ground Water Authority (d) National Water Development Agency Answer: (c) The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) was constituted under Section 3(3) of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to regulate and control groundwater development and management in the country. This is indirectly related to wetland conservation which aids groundwater recharge.

  4. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE 2022) Wetland/Lake : Location

    1. Hokera Wetland : Punjab
    2. Renuka Wetland : Himachal Pradesh
    3. Rudrasagar Lake : Tripura
    4. Sasthamkotta Lake : Tamil Nadu How many pairs given above are correctly matched? (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs Answer: (b) Hokera is in Jammu & Kashmir. Renuka is in Himachal Pradesh (Correct). Rudrasagar is in Tripura (Correct). Sasthamkotta is in Kerala. Thus, only two pairs are correctly matched.

  5. Among the following, which one is the largest exporter of rice in the world in the last five years? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) China (b) India (c) Myanmar (d) Vietnam Answer: (b) While not a direct environment question, rice cultivation is a major activity in wetland ecosystems (paddy fields are a form of man-made wetland) and has significant environmental implications, including methane emissions. India has been the largest exporter.

Mains Questions

  1. Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology. (UPSC CSE 2019, GS-I)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define mangroves as salt-tolerant vegetation in inter-tidal zones and state their critical role as a coastal bioshield and biodiversity hotspot. Briefly mention their current rate of depletion globally and in India.
    • Causes of Depletion of Mangroves:
      • Anthropogenic Causes:
        • Aquaculture: Conversion of mangrove forests into shrimp and fish farms is a primary driver.
        • Urbanization & Infrastructure: Coastal development, construction of ports, harbours, and industrial corridors leads to deforestation.
        • Pollution: Industrial effluents, sewage, and oil spills degrade the health of the mangrove ecosystem.
        • Overexploitation: Felling for timber, fuel wood, and charcoal.
        • Upstream Alterations: Dams and barrages reduce freshwater and sediment flow, increasing salinity and starving the mangroves of nutrients.
      • Natural Causes:
        • Climate Change: Sea-level rise can submerge mangrove areas.
        • Extreme Weather: Increased frequency and intensity of cyclones can physically damage the forests.
    • Importance in Maintaining Coastal Ecology:
      • Coastal Protection: Act as a natural barrier against tsunamis, cyclones, and storm surges, reducing wave energy and preventing coastal erosion.
      • Biodiversity Conservation: Serve as breeding, feeding, and nursery grounds for a vast array of marine and terrestrial species.
      • Livelihood Support: Provide timber, fuel, and support coastal fisheries, which are a primary source of income for local communities.
      • Carbon Sequestration: Act as highly efficient “Blue Carbon” sinks, mitigating climate change.
      • Water Purification: Filter pollutants and sediments from land-based runoff, protecting marine ecosystems like coral reefs.
    • Conclusion: Summarize the dual crisis of mangrove depletion and its ecological fallout. Emphasize the need for an integrated management approach involving community participation, stringent implementation of Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) norms, and promoting initiatives like the MISHTI scheme for mangrove restoration.

  2. What is the significance of the Ramsar Convention in the conservation of wetlands in India? Discuss the challenges associated with the implementation of wetland conservation policies. (Hypothetical, based on recent trends)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define wetlands and introduce the Ramsar Convention as a global framework for their conservation and wise use. State that India is a signatory with a large number of designated Ramsar sites.
    • Significance of the Ramsar Convention for India:
      • International Recognition: Designation as a Ramsar site brings international prestige and focuses global attention on the need for conservation.
      • Framework for “Wise Use”: Provides guiding principles for sustainable management that balances ecological needs with human development.
      • Access to Expertise and Funding: Facilitates access to international technical expertise and financial assistance for conservation projects (e.g., through the Ramsar Small Grants Fund).
      • Domestic Policy Driver: The Convention has been a major catalyst for the formulation of national policies, such as the National Wetland Conservation Programme and the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules.
      • Monitoring and Support: Tools like the Montreux Record help identify and prioritize sites under threat, mobilizing support for restoration.
    • Challenges in Implementing Wetland Conservation Policies:
      • Policy and Legal Framework: Ambiguity in the definition of wetlands under the 2017 Rules; devolution of power to states without adequate capacity and financial support; lack of integrated river basin management.
      • Economic Pressures: High opportunity cost of land leads to encroachment for agriculture, industry, and urbanization. The ecosystem services of wetlands are often undervalued in economic planning.
      • Data and Monitoring: Lack of comprehensive inventory and monitoring systems for all wetlands (beyond Ramsar sites) makes it difficult to track changes and enforce regulations.
      • Pollution: Discharge of untreated domestic and industrial waste is a major source of degradation.
      • Lack of Public Awareness: Insufficient awareness among the general public and even within administrative bodies about the importance of wetlands.
    • Conclusion: Reiterate the pivotal role of the Ramsar Convention. Conclude by stressing that overcoming implementation challenges requires a multi-pronged approach involving strengthening of legal frameworks, scientific inventorying, capacity building at the state level, and fostering community stewardship.

  3. Define the concept of “carrying capacity” of an ecosystem. How does this concept apply to the fragile ecosystems of estuaries and wetlands which are under severe anthropogenic pressure? (UPSC CSE 2019, GS-III - Adapted)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define “carrying capacity” as the maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained by a specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available.
    • Application to Estuaries and Wetlands:
      • Explain that for ecosystems like estuaries and wetlands, carrying capacity is not just about a single species, but about the threshold of external pressures (pollution, resource extraction) they can absorb without losing their fundamental ecological character and functions.
      • Pollution Load: Wetlands and estuaries have a natural capacity to assimilate and process a certain amount of pollutants (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus). When anthropogenic inputs from industrial effluents and sewage exceed this capacity, it leads to eutrophication, algal blooms, and the creation of “dead zones.”
      • Resource Extraction: The sustainable yield of fisheries in an estuary is a direct function of its carrying capacity. Overfishing beyond this limit leads to stock collapse and disrupts the entire food web.
      • Freshwater Inflow: The ecological character of an estuary depends on a delicate balance of fresh and saltwater. Excessive diversion of river water for irrigation or industry can breach the carrying capacity for salinity balance, harming species adapted to brackish conditions.
      • Physical Alteration: Land reclamation, dredging, and construction reduce the physical size and resilience of the wetland, thus lowering its overall carrying capacity to support biodiversity and provide ecosystem services like flood control.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that exceeding the carrying capacity of these fragile ecosystems leads to irreversible degradation. Therefore, developmental planning in coastal zones must be guided by scientific assessments of ecological carrying capacity, implementing the “precautionary principle” to prevent ecological tipping points.

  4. How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in the conservation of flora and fauna? (UPSC CSE 2018, GS-III)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Briefly describe India as a mega-diverse country with varied biodiversity across its bio-geographic zones. Mention coastal and marine ecosystems like mangroves and estuaries as key repositories of this diversity.
    • Biodiversity Variation in India: (Focus on relevant ecosystems)
      • Coastal and Marine: Highlight the unique biodiversity of mangrove forests (e.g., Sundarbans’ tigers, Bhitarkanika’s crocodiles) and estuaries, which serve as nurseries for 80% of commercial fish species. Contrast this with terrestrial ecosystems like the Himalayas or Western Ghats.
    • Role of Biological Diversity Act, 2002:
      • Three Main Objectives: Conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources (ABS).
      • Institutional Structure: Explain the three-tiered structure: National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs), and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) at the local level.
      • Conservation Mechanism:
        • BMCs and People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs): Empowers local communities to document and manage their local biodiversity, integrating traditional knowledge. This is crucial for conserving wetland and mangrove resources used by local communities.
        • Regulation of Access: The Act regulates access to biological resources and associated traditional knowledge to prevent over-exploitation and biopiracy.
        • Benefit Sharing: Ensures that commercial use of biological resources (e.g., from medicinal plants found in mangroves) results in monetary and non-monetary benefits for the local communities who conserve them.
        • Designation of Biodiversity Heritage Sites: The Act allows for the declaration of sites of high biodiversity value, providing them with special conservation status.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the BD Act, 2002, provides a robust legal framework that moves beyond just state-led conservation to a more decentralized, participatory, and equitable model, which is essential for the effective management of diverse ecosystems like wetlands and mangroves.

  5. Coastal erosion is a major environmental issue along the Indian coastline. Discuss the role of natural factors and human activities in causing it. What measures can be taken to mitigate its impact? (Hypothetical, based on recent trends)

    Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define coastal erosion and state its severity in India, citing data from reports like those by the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR).
    • Causative Factors:
      • Natural Factors:
        • Wave Action and Sea Level Rise: Natural erosive power of waves, exacerbated by climate change-induced sea-level rise.
        • Littoral Drift: Natural movement of sand along the coast.
        • Extreme Weather Events: Cyclones and storm surges cause rapid and large-scale erosion.
      • Human Activities:
        • Destruction of Natural Barriers: Deforestation of mangroves and destruction of coral reefs remove the coast’s first line of defense. Mangrove roots bind the soil, and their removal exposes the shoreline directly to wave action.
        • Coastal Infrastructure: Construction of ports, jetties, and breakwaters disrupts the natural littoral drift, causing accretion in one area and accelerated erosion in another.
        • Sand Mining: Illegal and unregulated sand mining from riverbeds and beaches starves the coast of its natural sediment supply.
        • Dam Construction: Dams on rivers trap sediment that would otherwise reach the coast and replenish beaches, especially in deltaic regions.
    • Mitigation Measures:
      • Soft Engineering (Nature-based solutions):
        • Mangrove Afforestation: Implementing large-scale mangrove plantation drives (like the MISHTI scheme) to create a living bioshield.
        • Beach Nourishment: Artificially adding sand to eroded beaches.
        • Dune Restoration: Rebuilding and stabilizing sand dunes with vegetation.
      • Hard Engineering:
        • Seawalls and Groynes: Construction of physical barriers, to be used judiciously as they can often shift the erosion problem elsewhere.
      • Policy and Regulation:
        • Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): Adopting a holistic approach to coastal planning.
        • Strict Enforcement of CRZ Norms: Preventing unsustainable development in vulnerable coastal areas.
        • Regulating Sand Mining: Banning or strictly regulating sand mining in coastal and riverine ecosystems.
    • Conclusion: Emphasize that a “one-size-fits-all” approach is ineffective. The most sustainable solution lies in adopting a combination of measures, with a strong preference for nature-based solutions like mangrove restoration, which offer co-benefits of biodiversity conservation and livelihood support.

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