GS Notes

5. Environment Notes 17

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Elaborate Notes

Waste Management and Other Rules under Environment Protection Act, 1986

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, enacted in the aftermath of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, serves as an umbrella legislation providing a framework for the central government to protect and improve the environment. Under Section 6 of this act, the central government is empowered to make rules to regulate environmental pollution. The following rules are key instruments for waste management in India.

  • 1. Biomedical Waste Management Rules, 2016

    • Historical Context: These rules superseded the Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998. The 2016 rules were introduced to be more comprehensive, environmentally sound, and to address implementation gaps of the previous regime.
    • Objective: To ensure the proper management of waste generated from healthcare facilities (hospitals, clinics, labs) to prevent adverse effects on human health and the environment. This waste is highly infectious and hazardous.
    • Segregation (Four Categories): The rules simplified the earlier 10-category system into four colour-coded categories for easier implementation.
      • Yellow: Highly infectious waste such as human anatomical waste, soiled waste, expired medicines, and chemical waste. This waste is typically incinerated or deep buried.
      • Red: Contaminated plastic waste like syringes (without needles), catheters, IV tubes, and bottles. This waste is sent for autoclaving, microwaving, and then recycling.
      • Blue: Glassware waste, including discarded medicine vials and metallic body implants. This waste undergoes disinfection and is then sent for recycling.
      • White (translucent, puncture-proof): Sharps waste, including needles, scalpels, and blades. This is disinfected and shredded before disposal. Note: The summary mentioned “Black” which was part of the older rules; the 2016 rules primarily use the four categories above.
    • Key Provisions:
      • Pre-treatment: Mandates pre-treatment of laboratory waste, microbiological waste, and blood samples at the source of generation (on-site) to minimize infection risk.
      • Common Biomedical Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF): The rules mandate the establishment of common facilities for the collection, treatment, and disposal of biomedical waste, especially for smaller healthcare units that cannot afford individual treatment plants.
      • Phasing out Chlorinated Plastics: The rules call for phasing out the use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves, and blood bags within two years of notification.

  • 2. Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016

    • Historical Context: These rules replaced the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000. The 2016 rules expanded the scope from just municipal areas to cover all urban and rural areas, census towns, and notified industrial townships.
    • Source Segregation: The core principle is the segregation of waste at the point of generation into three streams:
      • Wet Waste (Biodegradable): Kitchen waste, food scraps, etc.
      • Dry Waste (Non-biodegradable): Plastics, paper, metal, glass, etc.
      • Domestic Hazardous Waste (DHW): Discarded paint drums, pesticides, sanitary napkins, diapers, batteries, and expired medicines.
    • Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): This principle makes the producer responsible for the environmentally sound management of their product until the end of its life. While the summary mentions it for sanitary napkins, the SWM Rules, 2016 introduced the concept for packaging waste more broadly, making manufacturers of disposable products (like tin, glass, plastics) responsible for collecting back their packaging waste.
    • Landfill Siting Criteria: The rules specify strict criteria for the scientific design and operation of landfills to prevent environmental contamination. Key distances mentioned are:
      • 100 meters from a river.
      • 200 meters from a pond or lake.
      • 20 km from an airport or airbase (to prevent bird-hit incidents with aircraft).
      • 500 meters from a public park or residential area.
    • Other Provisions: Prohibits the open burning of solid waste. It mandates that bulk waste generators (like hotels, residential colonies >5,000 sq.m) must process their biodegradable waste on-site through composting or bio-methanation.

  • 3. E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022

    • Historical Context: These rules superseded the E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016. The 2022 version aims to streamline the EPR framework and bring more electronic goods under its purview. A significant study by the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM) in 2016 highlighted India’s growing problem as one of the top five e-waste generators globally.
    • Key Changes in 2022 Rules:
      • Centralized EPR Portal: Moved from the earlier system of producers engaging with Producer Responsibility Organisations (PROs) to a centralized online portal managed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). Producers now register and declare their EPR targets on this portal.
      • EPR Targets: The rules set mandatory recycling targets for producers. The summary’s figures (16% to 80%) are illustrative; the official targets are 60% for 2023-25, 70% for 2026-28, and 80% from 2028 onwards, based on the quantity of e-goods placed in the market in previous years.
      • Expanded Scope: The rules now cover a wider range of electronic items, including solar photovoltaic (PV) modules, panels, and cells, acknowledging the future waste stream from the solar energy sector.

  • 4. Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 (Amended in 2021 & 2022)

    • Historical Context: The Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2021 and the notification in 2022 were introduced to phase out specific single-use plastic (SUP) items with low utility and high littering potential.
    • Key Provisions:
      • SUP Ban: Prohibited the manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale, and use of identified SUP items (e.g., plastic cutlery, straws, wrapping films for sweet boxes) from July 1, 2022.
      • Thickness Norms: Increased the minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 50 microns to 75 microns (from Sept 2021) and to 120 microns (from Dec 2022) to encourage reuse and facilitate recycling.
      • EPR for Plastic Packaging: The rules mandate EPR for plastic packaging waste, classifying plastics into four categories (rigid, flexible, multi-layered, compostable) and setting targets for producers, importers, and brand owners to manage this waste through recycling, reuse, or end-of-life disposal.

  • 5. Construction and Demolition (C&D) Waste Management Rules, 2016

    • Objective: To manage the massive waste stream generated from construction, renovation, and demolition activities.
    • Key Provisions:
      • Segregation and Storage: Mandates segregation of C&D waste into streams like concrete, soil, steel, wood, and plastics at the source.
      • Duties of Waste Generators: Every waste generator is responsible for segregating and managing their waste. Those generating more than 20 tonnes per day or 300 tonnes per project in a month are required to submit a waste management plan.
      • Role of Local Authorities: Local bodies are responsible for creating a C&D waste management plan for their area and establishing processing facilities to convert the waste into recycled products (e.g., paver blocks, aggregates).

  • 6. Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016

    • Objective: To ensure the safe handling, generation, processing, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste.
    • Key Provisions:
      • Scope: Distinguishes between ‘Hazardous Waste’ (listed in schedules) and ‘Other Wastes’ (used tires, waste paper, etc.).
      • Waste to Resource: The rules prioritize a waste hierarchy of prevention, minimization, reuse, recycling, recovery, and finally, safe disposal. It encourages co-processing of hazardous waste in cement kilns as a sustainable disposal method.
      • Transboundary Movement: Aligns with the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, regulating the import and export of such wastes.

Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)

  • Historical Context: The first CRZ notification was issued in 1991 under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, to protect coastal ecosystems. This was reviewed by the M.S. Swaminathan Committee (2009), leading to the CRZ Notification, 2011. Further review by the Shailesh Nayak Committee (2014) led to the current CRZ Notification, 2019, which aims to balance conservation with sustainable development and the ‘Blue Economy’.
  • Objective: To regulate developmental activities along the coast to protect fragile coastal ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs, and turtle nesting sites, while ensuring the livelihood security of coastal communities. The regulated area extends up to 500 meters from the High Tide Line (HTL) on the landward side.
  • CRZ Classification (under 2019 Notification):
    • CRZ-IA (Ecologically Sensitive Areas): These are the most protected zones, including mangroves, corals, salt marshes, and turtle nesting grounds. Almost no new construction is permitted.
    • CRZ-IB (Intertidal Zone): The area between the Low Tide Line (LTL) and High Tide Line (HTL). Regulated activities like shoreline protection measures are allowed.
    • CRZ-II (Developed Areas): Areas that are already substantially built-up (urban areas). Development is permitted on the landward side of existing structures.
    • CRZ-IIIA (Densely Populated Rural Areas): Rural areas with a population density of over 2161 per sq. km (as per the 2011 census). A No Development Zone (NDZ) of 50 meters from the HTL is applicable.
    • CRZ-IIIB (Sparsely Populated Rural Areas): Rural areas with a population density of less than 2161 per sq. km. A more stringent NDZ of 200 meters from the HTL is applicable.
    • CRZ-IVA (Coastal Waters): The water area from the LTL up to 12 Nautical Miles into the sea. Activities like traditional fishing are permitted, but discharge of untreated waste is prohibited.
    • CRZ-IVB (Tidal Influenced Water Bodies): Includes water bodies influenced by tides, such as estuaries and backwaters. Regulated for activities like dredging and port construction.
  • Exemptions: Strategic and defence-related projects are generally exempted from CRZ regulations for reasons of national security.

Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ)

  • Legal Basis: Notified under Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
  • Concept: ESZs or Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFAs) are areas around Protected Areas (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries) intended to act as a “shock absorber” or transition zone. The purpose is to minimize the negative impacts of development activities on the fragile ecosystems of the protected areas.
  • Regulation: The extent of an ESZ can go up to 10 km around a protected area. However, in a 2022 ruling, the Supreme Court of India mandated a minimum ESZ of 1 km for all protected areas, though this has been subject to subsequent modifications and state-specific requests for relaxation based on ground realities.
  • Activities: ESZs do not prohibit all activities. They categorize activities into three types:
    • Prohibited: Commercial mining, setting up of polluting industries, major hydroelectric projects.
    • Regulated: Felling of trees, construction of hotels and resorts, widening of roads.
    • Permitted: Ongoing agricultural practices, rainwater harvesting, use of renewable energy.

Pollution Control Measures

  • Ganga Rejuvenation

    • Ganga Action Plan (GAP) - I (1986): Launched by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, it was the first major river action plan. It focused primarily on sewage interception and treatment in 25 Class-I towns along the Ganga. It had limited success due to poor planning, corruption, and lack of public participation.
    • GAP - II (1993): Expanded the scope to include major tributaries of the Ganga (Yamuna, Gomti, Damodar). It was later merged with the broader National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) in 1995.
    • National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) (2009): Established under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. It was a paradigm shift from a town-centric to a holistic river basin-level approach. It was chaired by the Prime Minister.
    • Namami Gange Programme (2014): An integrated conservation mission approved as a ‘Flagship Programme’ under the Union Government. It is a Central Sector Scheme with a budget of ₹20,000 crores. Its twin objectives are:
      • Nirmal Dhara (Unpolluted Flow): Focusing on sewage treatment infrastructure, industrial effluent monitoring.
      • Aviral Dhara (Continuous Flow): Focusing on river surface cleaning, afforestation, and ecological restoration.
    • National Council for Rejuvenation, Protection and Management of River Ganga (NGC) (2016): The NGRBA was dissolved and replaced by the NGC, which is a more empowered body with a mandate for preventing and controlling pollution in the Ganga. The implementation arm is the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG). The structure is five-tiered: NGC (National), Empowered Task Force (headed by Union Water Minister), NMCG (executing), State Ganga Committees, and District Ganga Committees.

  • Air Pollution Control in Delhi-NCR

    • Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM): A statutory body established by the CAQM in National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021. It superseded the Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA).
    • Jurisdiction & Power: The CAQM has jurisdiction over Delhi and the adjoining areas of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. Its directions are legally binding and override the orders of respective State Governments and even the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) on matters of air quality management in the region.
    • Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): This is a set of emergency measures that are implemented based on the Air Quality Index (AQI) levels to prevent further deterioration of air quality.
      • Stage I (AQI: 201-300 - ‘Poor’): Actions include enforcing PUC norms, stopping garbage burning.
      • Stage II (AQI: 301-400 - ‘Very Poor’): Actions include increasing parking fees to discourage private vehicles, increasing bus and metro services.
      • Stage III (AQI: 401-450 - ‘Severe’): Actions include a ban on construction and demolition activities, closure of brick kilns.
      • Stage IV (AQI: >450 - ‘Severe+’): Actions include stopping the entry of trucks into Delhi (except essential commodities), implementing the odd-even scheme for private vehicles.

International Initiatives

  • 1971: Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

    • An intergovernmental treaty adopted in Ramsar, Iran. It provides the framework for the conservation and “wise use” of wetlands and their resources. “Wise use” is defined as “the maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable development.”
    • Three Pillars (Commitments):
      1. Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands.
      2. Designate suitable wetlands for the list of “Wetlands of International Importance” (Ramsar Sites).
      3. Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems, and shared species.
    • Montreux Record: A register of Ramsar sites where adverse ecological changes have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur. It is a tool to highlight sites in need of priority conservation attention. In India, Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur) are currently on the Record. (Chilika Lake was on the record but was later removed due to successful restoration efforts).

  • 1972: Stockholm Conference (UN Conference on the Human Environment)

    • This was the first-ever major UN conference on international environmental issues, marking a turning point in global environmental diplomacy. It led to the Stockholm Declaration, which contained principles for environmental preservation.
    • Key Outcomes:
      • The creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the primary UN entity for environmental matters.
      • It spurred the creation of environment ministries in many countries, including India, which established the National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (later evolved into the Ministry of Environment and Forests).
      • June 5th is celebrated as World Environment Day to commemorate the opening of the conference.

  • 1973: CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)

    • An international agreement between governments to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. It is legally binding on Parties, but it does not take the place of national laws.
    • Appendices:
      • Appendix I: Includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances (e.g., scientific research). Examples: Tiger, Snow Leopard, Gorilla.
      • Appendix II: Includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival. Examples: Great White Shark, Hippopotamus.
      • Appendix III: Includes species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade. Examples: Walrus (in Canada), several species of Indian turtles.

  • 1979: CMS (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals) - The Bonn Convention

    • An environmental treaty under the aegis of UNEP that provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats.
    • Scope: CMS addresses the conservation of terrestrial, aquatic, and avian migratory species. It covers entire migratory ranges and does not just focus on specific paths. The Earth has eight major migratory bird flyways, and India is a crucial part of the Central Asian Flyway.
    • India’s Role: India has been a party since 1983 and hosted the 13th Conference of the Parties (COP13) in Gandhinagar in 2020.

  • 1985: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

    • A framework convention that established principles for international cooperation in research and monitoring of the ozone layer. It was a response to the scientific discovery by chemists Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland in 1974 that Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) could deplete stratospheric ozone. It did not include legally binding reduction goals.

  • 1987: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

    • A landmark multilateral environmental agreement that regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). It is a protocol to the Vienna Convention.
    • Key Features:
      • Legally Binding Targets: It set a time-bound plan for phasing out ODS like CFCs, halons, and HCFCs.
      • Multilateral Fund: Established in 1991 to provide financial and technical assistance to developing countries (Article 5 countries) to help them comply with their obligations under the Protocol. This embodies the principle of “Common But Differentiated Responsibilities.”
      • Kigali Amendment (2016): This amendment added Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to the list of controlled substances. While HFCs do not deplete the ozone layer, they are potent greenhouse gases. The amendment aims to phase down their production and consumption, potentially avoiding up to 0.4°C of global warming by 2100. The proposed alternative is Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs).

Prelims Pointers

  • Waste Management Rules (Biomedical, Solid, E-waste, Plastic, C&D, Hazardous) are framed under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
  • Biomedical Waste Segregation: Yellow (Infectious), Red (Plastic), Blue (Glass), White (Sharps).
  • Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 apply to all urban and rural areas.
  • Mandatory segregation of solid waste at source: Wet, Dry, and Domestic Hazardous Waste.
  • EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) is a key principle in Solid Waste, E-Waste, and Plastic Waste management rules.
  • E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 include solar PV cells, panels, and modules.
  • Targets under E-waste rules (2022): 60% recycling by 2023-25, rising to 80% by 2028.
  • Plastic carry bag minimum thickness under PWM Rules: 120 microns from 31st December 2022.
  • CRZ extends up to 500 meters from the High Tide Line (HTL) on the landward side.
  • CRZ-IIIA (Densely populated rural) NDZ: 50 meters.
  • CRZ-IIIB (Sparsely populated rural) NDZ: 200 meters.
  • Coastal waters up to 12 Nautical Miles are classified as CRZ-IVA.
  • Shailesh Nayak Committee recommendations led to the CRZ Notification, 2019.
  • Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) is notified around National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
  • The Supreme Court mandated a default ESZ of 1 km around protected areas.
  • Ganga Action Plan (GAP-I) was launched in 1986.
  • Namami Gange Programme (2014) is a Central Sector Scheme.
  • The National Ganga Council (NGC) is chaired by the Prime Minister. Its implementing arm is the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG).
  • CAQM is a statutory body for air quality management in Delhi-NCR. Its directions are binding on state governments and CPCB/SPCBs in its jurisdiction.
  • GRAP is a Graded Response Action Plan to tackle air pollution based on AQI levels.
  • Ramsar Convention (1971) is for the conservation of wetlands.
  • Montreux Record lists Ramsar sites with deteriorating ecological character. India has two sites on the record: Keoladeo National Park and Loktak Lake.
  • World Wetland Day: February 2.
  • Stockholm Conference (1972) led to the establishment of UNEP.
  • World Environment Day: June 5.
  • CITES (1973) regulates international trade in endangered species. It has three appendices.
  • Bonn Convention (1979) is also known as the Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS).
  • Vienna Convention (1985) is a framework convention for ozone layer protection.
  • Montreal Protocol (1987) is a protocol under the Vienna Convention that sets binding targets to phase out ODS.
  • Kigali Amendment (2016) to the Montreal Protocol aims to phase down HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons).

Mains Insights

  1. Challenges in Waste Management Implementation:

    • Cause-Effect: The failure to enforce source segregation (Cause) leads to mixed waste reaching landfills, making resource recovery inefficient and causing soil and water pollution (Effect). This highlights a gap between progressive rules on paper and weak ground-level execution by urban local bodies (ULBs).
    • Debate: The concept of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is lauded for internalizing environmental costs. However, its implementation in India faces hurdles like tracking and collection in a vast informal economy, lack of recycling infrastructure, and a debate on whether PROs (Producer Responsibility Organisations) are truly effective or just a form of greenwashing.
    • Historiographical View: The evolution of waste management rules from a narrow, disposal-centric view (SWM Rules, 2000) to a holistic, resource-recovery, and circular economy approach (SWM Rules, 2016; E-Waste Rules, 2022) reflects a global shift in environmental governance paradigms.

  2. The Development vs. Conservation Dilemma in Coastal and Eco-Sensitive Zones:

    • CRZ: The CRZ Notification, 2019, is often debated. Proponents argue it streamlines development, boosts tourism (Blue Economy), and accounts for population density. Critics, including environmentalists and fisherfolk communities, argue that it dilutes protections (e.g., reducing the NDZ in some areas) and could expose fragile coasts to increased disaster risk and ecological degradation.
    • ESZ: The notification of ESZs often leads to conflict between state development goals, the livelihoods of local forest-dependent communities, and conservation mandates. The ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach of a 1 km mandatory zone by the Supreme Court was criticized for ignoring site-specific socio-economic and ecological contexts, leading to its subsequent modification. This highlights the need for a participatory and scientifically grounded approach to zoning.

  3. Effectiveness of Pollution Control Models:

    • Ganga Rejuvenation: The failure of earlier plans like GAP highlights that a purely engineering-centric approach (building STPs) is insufficient. The Namami Gange programme’s integrated model—addressing ecology (Aviral Dhara), pollution (Nirmal Dhara), and people’s participation (Jan Andolan)—is theoretically superior. However, its success hinges on overcoming chronic issues like inter-departmental coordination, ensuring treated water standards, and controlling non-point source pollution (e.g., agricultural runoff).
    • Air Pollution (CAQM & GRAP): The creation of a powerful, centralized body like CAQM reflects a recognition that air pollution is a regional problem requiring a supra-state solution. This addresses the cause-effect relationship where pollution from adjoining states directly impacts Delhi’s air quality. However, GRAP remains a reactive “emergency” measure. The long-term solution lies in addressing root causes like stubble burning, vehicular emissions, and industrial pollution throughout the year, which is the broader mandate of CAQM.

  4. India’s Role and the Geopolitics of International Environmental Conventions:

    • Leadership and Responsibility: India has actively participated in global environmental negotiations, often championing the cause of developing nations and upholding the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR). The success of the Montreal Protocol, with its Multilateral Fund, is a prime example of CBDR in action, enabling countries like India to transition away from ODS.
    • Diverging Success Rates: The stark contrast between the success of the Montreal Protocol (tangible, measurable, and with available technological alternatives) and the slower progress under conventions like UNCBD (biodiversity) or UNFCCC (climate) is a key analytical point. It shows that global cooperation is more effective when the problem is clearly defined, the solutions are technologically and economically viable, and the responsibilities are equitably shared.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. (UPSC CSE Prelims 2023) The ‘Invasive Species Specialist Group’ (that develops Global Invasive Species Database) belongs to which one of the following organizations? (a) The International Union for Conservation of Nature (b) The United Nations Environment Programme (c) The United Nations World Commission for Environment and Development (d) The World Wide Fund for Nature Answer: (a) The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The ISSG is a global network of scientific and policy experts on invasive species, organized under the auspices of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC).

  2. (UPSC CSE Prelims 2022) The “Miyawaki method” is well known for the: (a) Promotion of commercial farming in arid and semi-arid areas (b) Development of gardens using genetically modified flora (c) Creation of mini forests in urban areas (d) Harvesting wind energy on coastal areas and on sea surfaces Answer: (c) Creation of mini forests in urban areas. The Miyawaki method, developed by Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki, is a technique for creating dense, native forests in a short time. This connects to themes of afforestation under programs like Namami Gange.

  3. (UPSC CSE Prelims 2022) In the Government of India, under which Ministry is the ‘Wastewater Surveillance Platform’ managed? (a) Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (b) Ministry of Jal Shakti (c) Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (d) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Answer: (a) Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The Wastewater Surveillance Platform, launched in Bengaluru, is a collaborative effort involving multiple organizations but is primarily managed under health surveillance for tracking pathogens like SARS-CoV-2.

  4. (UPSC CSE Prelims 2019) Consider the following statements:

    1. As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels.
    2. People’s participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (a) 1 only. The CAF Act, 2016 provides for the establishment of a National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the public account of India, and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the public account of each state. While people’s participation is encouraged, it is not explicitly stated as ‘mandatory’ in the Act for all programmes.

  5. (UPSC CSE Prelims 2019) As per the Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 in India, which one of the following statements is correct? (a) Waste generator has to segregate waste into five categories. (b) The Rules are applicable only to notified urban local bodies. (c) The Rules provide for exact and elaborate criteria for the identification of sites for landfills and waste processing facilities. (d) It is mandatory on the part of the waste generator that the waste generated in one district cannot be moved to another district. Answer: (c) The Rules provide for exact and elaborate criteria for the identification of sites for landfills and waste processing facilities. Statement (a) is incorrect (it’s three categories). Statement (b) is incorrect (they apply to all areas). Statement (d) is incorrect (there is no such blanket prohibition). The rules specify detailed siting criteria (distance from rivers, airports, etc.).

Mains

  1. (UPSC CSE Mains 2022) Discuss in detail the photochemical smog. Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define photochemical smog as a type of air pollution occurring in warm, sunny urban areas, resulting from the interaction of sunlight with certain chemicals in the atmosphere. It is also known as “Los Angeles smog.”
    • Formation Mechanism:
      • Primary Pollutants: Explain that it starts with primary pollutants like Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) released from vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions.
      • Role of Sunlight: Describe how sunlight (UV radiation) acts on these primary pollutants. NOx splits into NO and a free oxygen atom (O).
      • Formation of Ozone (O3): The free oxygen atom combines with molecular oxygen (O2) to form ozone (O3), which is a secondary pollutant and the main component of photochemical smog.
      • Formation of PAN: VOCs react with NOx to form other harmful secondary pollutants like Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN).
    • Harmful Effects:
      • On Human Health: Causes respiratory problems (asthma), eye irritation, headaches, and reduces visibility.
      • On Environment: Damages plant life, corrodes materials like rubber and textiles.
    • Control Measures: Mention measures like reducing vehicular emissions (catalytic converters, promoting EVs), controlling industrial emissions, and using low-VOC paints and solvents. Link this to India’s initiatives like the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) and the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).

  2. (UPSC CSE Mains 2020) Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these revised standards? Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Mention the WHO’s release of the 2021 Global AQGs, tightening the standards for key air pollutants based on new scientific evidence of their health impacts.
    • Key Revisions (2021 vs. 2005):
      • PM2.5: Annual mean guideline reduced from 10 µg/m³ to 5 µg/m³. 24-hour mean from 25 to 15 µg/m³.
      • PM10: Annual mean guideline reduced from 20 µg/m³ to 15 µg/m³. 24-hour mean from 50 to 45 µg/m³.
      • NO2: New annual guideline of 10 µg/m³ introduced.
      • These changes reflect the scientific consensus that air pollution is harmful even at lower concentrations than previously thought.
    • Required Changes in India’s NCAP:
      • Ambitious Targets: India’s NCAP aims for a 20-30% reduction in PM concentrations by 2024 from 2017 levels. This is less stringent than WHO standards. The targets need to be revised and made more ambitious and legally binding.
      • Expanded Monitoring: Increase the air quality monitoring network to cover more rural and non-attainment cities.
      • Strengthened Implementation: Enhance inter-agency coordination (like CAQM model), enforce stricter emission norms for industries and vehicles, and provide a clear roadmap with time-bound actions to meet the revised guidelines.
      • Public Health Focus: Integrate the air quality goals with public health advisories and healthcare system preparedness.

  3. (UPSC CSE Mains 2019) What are the impediments in disposing of the huge quantities of discarded solid waste which are continuously being generated? How do we safely remove the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: State the problem of burgeoning solid waste in India due to rapid urbanization and changing consumption patterns.
    • Impediments in Disposal:
      • Lack of Segregation at Source: This is the biggest hurdle, making resource recovery and scientific processing difficult.
      • Inadequate Infrastructure: Shortage of scientific landfills, composting plants, and waste-to-energy facilities.
      • Financial Constraints: Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) lack the funds and technical capacity for efficient waste management.
      • Social & Political Issues: Public opposition to setting up landfills (NIMBY - Not In My Backyard syndrome) and lack of political will.
      • Informal Sector Dominance: The informal sector plays a crucial role but lacks safety gear, formal recognition, and integration into the formal waste management chain.
    • Safely Removing Toxic Wastes (Domestic Hazardous & E-waste):
      • Strict Implementation of Rules: Enforce the SWM Rules, 2016 for mandatory segregation of Domestic Hazardous Waste (DHW) and E-Waste Rules, 2022.
      • EPR Mechanism: Strengthen the EPR framework to ensure producers set up robust collection and recycling channels.
      • Specialized Facilities: Promote the establishment of scientifically engineered secured landfills and common hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDFs) for wastes that cannot be recycled.
      • Public Awareness: Conduct large-scale awareness campaigns on the dangers of mixing toxic waste with regular waste and the procedures for its safe disposal.

  4. (UPSC CSE Mains 2018) What is a wetland? Explain the Ramsar concept of ‘wise use’ in the context of wetland conservation. Cite two examples of Ramsar sites from India. Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define a wetland as per the Ramsar Convention: “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.”
    • Ramsar Concept of ‘Wise Use’:
      • Explain that ‘wise use’ is the central philosophy of the convention.
      • Define it as “the maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable development.”
      • Elaborate that it is not about prohibiting the use of wetlands but about ensuring that their use is sustainable and does not degrade their ecological functions (e.g., water filtration, flood control, biodiversity habitat). This involves integrating wetland conservation into national planning, policies, and legislation.
    • Examples of Ramsar Sites from India:
      • Chilika Lake, Odisha: The largest coastal lagoon in India. It is a biodiversity hotspot, famous for migratory birds and the Irrawaddy dolphin. It was on the Montreux Record but was removed following successful restoration efforts, showcasing a prime example of ‘wise use’ in practice.
      • Sundarbans Wetland, West Bengal: The largest mangrove forest in the world, a UNESCO World Heritage site, and home to the Royal Bengal Tiger. Its conservation is crucial for coastal protection from cyclones and for the livelihoods of millions dependent on its resources.

  5. (UPSC CSE Mains 2018) How does the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2020 differ from the existing EIA Notification, 2006? This question refers to the draft 2020 notification, which was highly debated. An answer should focus on the key controversial changes proposed. Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Briefly explain the purpose of EIA as a tool to evaluate the potential environmental impacts of a proposed project and identify mitigation measures, governed by the EIA Notification under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
    • Key Differences (Draft 2020 vs. 2006 Notification):
      • Post-facto Clearance: The most significant and controversial change was the proposal to allow for post-facto environmental clearance for projects that have started construction or are running without prior approval. The 2006 notification did not have such a provision.
      • Reduced Time for Public Consultation: The draft proposed to reduce the time for the public to submit their responses during a public hearing from 30 days to 20 days.
      • Exemption of Projects: The draft expanded the list of projects exempted from public consultation and EIA. For instance, projects labeled as ‘strategic’ by the government would not require information to be placed in the public domain. Border area road and pipeline projects were also exempted.
      • Compliance Reporting: The frequency of submitting compliance reports by project proponents was reduced from every six months to once a year, potentially weakening monitoring.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by stating that the draft notification was criticized by environmentalists for potentially diluting the environmental safeguards established by the 2006 notification in favor of promoting ‘ease of doing business’.

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