GS Notes

5. Environment Notes 18

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Elaborate Notes

Timeline of Various Developments/Initiatives

  • 1987: Brundtland Report (‘Our Common Future’)

    • The report was published by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), chaired by the former Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland.
    • It is a landmark document in the history of environmentalism as it popularized the concept of “Sustainable Development.”
    • The report defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
    • It established the three fundamental pillars of sustainability: environmental protection, economic growth, and social equity. This framework argued that these three elements are interconnected and must be pursued simultaneously. Its publication set the stage for the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.

  • 1988: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

    • The IPCC was established jointly by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
    • Its primary role is not to conduct new research but to assess and synthesize the vast body of scientific, technical, and socio-economic literature produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change.
    • It provides policymakers with regular scientific assessments on climate change, its implications, and potential future risks, as well as to put forward adaptation and mitigation options. Its Assessment Reports (ARs) are crucial inputs for international climate negotiations under the UNFCCC.

  • 1989: Basel Convention

    • The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal was adopted in response to the “toxic colonialism” crisis of the 1980s, where developed nations were found dumping hazardous waste in developing countries.
    • Its core principle is the regulation of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes through a Prior Informed Consent (PIC) mechanism. This requires the exporting country to obtain the written consent of the importing and transit countries before any shipment.
    • A key exclusion is radioactive waste, which is covered under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The convention also promotes the environmentally sound management (ESM) of wastes.

  • 1992: Rio Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development - UNCED)

    • This was a pivotal event that brought global attention to the concept of sustainable development.
    • Major Outcomes:
      1. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: A set of 27 principles to guide sustainable development.
      2. Agenda 21: A comprehensive global plan of action for sustainable development.
      3. Statement of Forest Principles: A non-legally binding document on the conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests.
      4. Establishment of three key conventions:
        • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): To stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
        • United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD): For the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
        • United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): To combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought.

  • 1997: Kyoto Protocol

    • Adopted at the third Conference of the Parties (COP3) to the UNFCCC in Kyoto, Japan.
    • It was the first international treaty to set legally binding targets for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions for industrialized countries.
    • It operated on the principle of “Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities” (CBDR-RC), placing the primary responsibility on developed nations (listed in Annex I) to reduce emissions. Developing countries (Non-Annex I) had no binding targets.

  • 1998: Rotterdam Convention

    • The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade.
    • It promotes shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals.
    • It facilitates information exchange about their characteristics and provides for a national decision-making process on their import and export. The listing of a chemical does not imply a ban but triggers the PIC procedure. It is a legally binding treaty.

  • 2000: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

    • An additional agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD).
    • It aims to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology.
    • It establishes a Prior Informed Consent procedure for the transboundary movement of LMOs intended for introduction into the environment.

  • 2001: Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

    • A global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms, and are toxic.
    • POPs exhibit characteristics of persistence, bioaccumulation, biomagnification, and long-range environmental transport.
    • The convention initially targeted twelve POPs, known as the “Dirty Dozen,” which included pesticides like DDT and industrial chemicals like PCBs. The list has since been expanded.

  • 2002 & 2012: Johannesburg (Rio+10) & Rio+20 Summits

    • These were follow-up conferences to the 1992 Earth Summit.
    • Johannesburg Summit (2002): The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) focused on implementation and action plans.
    • Rio+20 Summit (2012): The UN Conference on Sustainable Development produced the outcome document “The Future We Want,” which initiated the process of developing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

  • 2013: Minamata Convention on Mercury

    • A global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury.
    • It addresses the entire life cycle of mercury, including controls and reductions across a range of products, processes, and industries where mercury is used, released, or emitted.
    • It includes provisions on mercury mining, export/import, safe storage, and waste management.

  • 2015: Paris Agreement

    • Adopted at COP21, it is a landmark agreement within the UNFCCC dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance.
    • Its central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
    • It operates on a “bottom-up” approach through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), where each country sets its own emission reduction targets.

Initiatives to Mitigate Climate Change

  • IPCC Assessment Reports (ARs):

    • The IPCC’s reports have been foundational in shaping global climate policy.
    • AR1 (1990): Provided the scientific basis that led to the creation of the UNFCCC.
    • AR4 (2007): Concluded that warming of the climate system is “unequivocal” and that most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is “very likely” due to the observed increase in anthropogenic GHG concentrations. The IPCC, along with Al Gore, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 for their efforts.
    • AR6 (2021-22): Termed a “code red for humanity” by the UN Secretary-General, it stated with even greater certainty that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean, and land.
    • Dr. Rajendra K. Pachauri, an Indian environmentalist, served as the Chair of the IPCC from 2002 to 2015, the longest tenure in its history.

  • UNFCCC and its COPs:

    • The UNFCCC Secretariat is headquartered in Bonn, Germany. It entered into force on 21 March 1994.
    • Annex I: Industrialized countries and economies in transition (EITs).
    • Annex II: A sub-group of Annex I countries (developed OECD members) who are obliged to provide financial resources to developing countries.
    • Non-Annex I: Mostly developing countries.
    • Least Developed Countries (LDCs): A sub-group of Non-Annex I countries given special consideration.
    • COP (Conference of the Parties): The supreme decision-making body of the Convention.

  • Kyoto Protocol (COP3, 1997) and its Mechanisms:

    • The protocol established binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions.
    • It introduced three market-based “Flexible Mechanisms” to help countries meet their targets cost-effectively:
      1. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Allows an Annex I country to implement an emission-reduction project in a non-Annex I country. These projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
      2. Joint Implementation (JI): Allows an Annex I country to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction project in another Annex I country.
      3. Emissions Trading (ET): Allows countries that have emission units to spare – emissions permitted them but not “used” – to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets.

  • From Copenhagen to Paris (COP15 - COP21):

    • COP15 (Copenhagen, 2009): Largely seen as a failure as it did not produce a legally binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol. However, it resulted in the Copenhagen Accord, which recognized the need to limit global temperature rise to 2°C and saw developed countries pledge climate finance.
    • COP16 (Cancun, 2010): Formalized the pledges made in Copenhagen and established the Green Climate Fund (GCF) to channel $100 billion per year by 2020 from developed to developing nations.
    • COP18 (Doha, 2012): Adopted the Doha Amendment, establishing a second commitment period for the Kyoto Protocol (2013-2020).

  • Paris Agreement (COP21, 2015) and beyond:

    • Global Stocktake (GST): A mechanism under Article 14 of the Paris Agreement to assess the collective progress towards achieving the purpose of the Agreement. The first GST concluded at COP28 in 2023. It is conducted every five years.
    • COP26 (Glasgow, 2021): Notable for the Glasgow Climate Pact, which explicitly mentioned the need to “phase-down unabated coal power and phase-out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies.” India announced its Panchamrit commitments and its net-zero target for 2070.
    • COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh, 2022): A historic achievement was the agreement to establish a Loss and Damage Fund to compensate vulnerable countries for the unavoidable impacts of climate change.
    • COP28 (Dubai, 2023): For the first time, the final text called on all nations to “transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems, in a just, orderly and equitable manner.” This was a significant step, signaling a global consensus on the future of fossil fuels.

Wildlife Section

  • Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)

    • Habitat: High-altitude, arid, and semi-arid mountainous regions across 12 countries in Central and South Asia. In India, its range includes Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Hemis National Park in Ladakh is renowned as the snow leopard capital of the world.
    • Adaptations: Its long, thick tail (80-105 cm) is used for balance and as a wrap for warmth. Wide, fur-covered paws distribute weight for walking on snow. A powerful chest and short forelimbs are adapted for steep, rugged terrain.
    • Conservation:
      • Project Snow Leopard (2009): A landscape-level conservation approach focusing on participatory policies and managing the human-wildlife conflict.
      • GSLEP (2013): An alliance of all 12 range countries, supported by international organizations. The goal is to secure at least 20 healthy snow leopard landscapes by 2020 (the ‘20 by 2020’ goal).
      • IUCN Status: Upgraded from ‘Endangered’ to ‘Vulnerable’ in 2017, reflecting the success of conservation efforts, though threats remain significant.

  • Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)

    • Habitat: Primarily found in dense tropical evergreen forests, from the foothills of the Himalayas through mainland Southeast Asia and into Southern China. In India, it is found in the Northeastern states, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
    • Characteristics: It has the largest canine teeth in proportion to its body size of any living feline. Its unique cloud-like coat pattern provides excellent camouflage. It is an arboreal specialist, with rotating rear ankles that allow it to climb down trees head-first.
    • Conservation: Protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is the state animal of Meghalaya.

  • Fishing Cat (Prionailurus viverrinus)

    • Habitat: A wetland specialist, found in marshes, mangroves (like the Sundarbans), and densely vegetated areas near rivers and streams.
    • Characteristics: It has partially webbed paws, which aid in swimming and capturing aquatic prey. It is primarily nocturnal.
    • Conservation: In 2012, the West Bengal government declared the Fishing Cat the State Animal. The Fishing Cat Project, launched in 2010, is a major conservation initiative working in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

  • Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus - Asiatic Elephant)

    • Ecological Role: As a keystone species and an ‘ecosystem engineer,’ elephants play a crucial role in maintaining forest ecosystems by dispersing seeds, creating water holes, and clearing vegetation.
    • Social Structure: They live in complex matriarchal societies where the oldest and most experienced female leads the herd.
    • Conservation:
      • Project Elephant (1992): A Centrally Sponsored Scheme to provide financial and technical support to states for the protection of elephants, their habitats, and corridors.
      • MIKE Programme: Mandated by a CITES resolution, it measures trends in the illegal killing of elephants to inform conservation policy. There are 10 MIKE sites in India.
      • Declared the National Heritage Animal of India in 2010.

  • One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

    • Habitat: Found in the tall grasslands and forests in the foothills of the Himalayas. Over 90% of its global population is concentrated in Assam, India, primarily in Kaziranga National Park, Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, and Manas National Park.
    • Conservation:
      • Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (IRV 2020): Launched in 2005, it was an ambitious program to attain a wild population of at least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos spread over seven protected areas in Assam by 2020. The target was successfully achieved. It involved translocating rhinos from densely populated areas like Kaziranga to other protected areas like Manas.

  • Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps)

    • Habitat: A flagship species of arid and semi-arid grasslands. Its largest populations are now found in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
    • Threats: The primary threats are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and industrialization, and collision with high-tension power lines that crisscross their habitat.
    • Conservation:
      • Supreme Court Intervention: In 2021, the Supreme Court of India ordered that all overhead power lines in the GIB’s priority and potential habitats in Rajasthan and Gujarat be laid underground.
      • Project Great Indian Bustard: Launched by Rajasthan, it involves creating breeding enclosures and managing habitats.
      • It is listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in Appendix I of CITES.

Prelims Pointers

  • 1987: Brundtland Report, ‘Our Common Future’, defined Sustainable Development.
  • 1988: IPCC was established by UNEP and WMO.
  • 1989: Basel Convention deals with the transboundary movement of hazardous waste; it does not cover radioactive waste.
  • 1992: Rio Earth Summit led to the establishment of UNFCCC, UNCBD, and UNCCD.
  • 1997: Kyoto Protocol, adopted at COP3, set legally binding emission targets for Annex-I countries.
  • 1998: Rotterdam Convention is based on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure for hazardous chemicals trade. It is legally binding.
  • 2000: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is a supplement to the UNCBD, dealing with LMOs.
  • 2001: Stockholm Convention regulates Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). The initial list was called the ‘Dirty Dozen’.
  • 2013: Minamata Convention is a global treaty to control anthropogenic emissions of Mercury.
  • 2015: Paris Agreement (COP21) aims to keep global temperature rise well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C.
  • IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007.
  • R.K. Pachauri was the longest-serving Chairperson of the IPCC.
  • Flexible Mechanisms of Kyoto Protocol: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation (JI), and Emissions Trading (ET).
  • Green Climate Fund (GCF): Established at COP16 (Cancun) to transfer funds from developed to developing nations.
  • Global Stocktake (GST): A 5-yearly review mechanism under the Paris Agreement to assess collective progress.
  • India’s Net-Zero Target Year: 2070 (announced at COP26, Glasgow).
  • Loss and Damage Fund: Agreed upon at COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh).
  • Snow Leopard: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. Found in high-altitude Himalayas. Project Snow Leopard was launched in 2009.
  • Clouded Leopard: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. State animal of Meghalaya. Found in Northeast Indian forests.
  • Fishing Cat: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. State animal of West Bengal. A wetland specialist.
  • Asiatic Elephant: IUCN Status: Endangered. National Heritage Animal of India. Project Elephant was launched in 1992.
  • One-Horned Rhino: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. Mainly found in Assam (Kaziranga NP). Indian Rhino Vision 2020 was a conservation program.
  • Great Indian Bustard (GIB): IUCN Status: Critically Endangered. Endemic to the Indian subcontinent, found in grasslands. Protected under Schedule I of WPA, 1972.

Mains Insights

  1. Evolution of Global Environmental Governance:

    • The timeline of conventions reveals a shift from issue-specific concerns (like waste in Basel) to a more integrated approach (sustainable development at Rio).
    • There is a clear evolution in climate policy from a rigid, top-down, legally binding approach (Kyoto Protocol) to a flexible, bottom-up, nationally determined framework (Paris Agreement). This reflects the geopolitical and economic realities and the difficulty in enforcing strict targets on sovereign nations.
    • Debate: The effectiveness of non-binding pledges (Paris NDCs) versus binding targets (Kyoto) is a major point of discussion. While Paris achieved universal participation, its success hinges on the ambition and implementation of NDCs, which are currently insufficient to meet the 1.5°C goal.

  2. The North-South Divide and Climate Justice:

    • The principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) has been a cornerstone of environmental negotiations, acknowledging that developed countries have a greater historical responsibility for emissions.
    • This principle is evident in the structure of the Kyoto Protocol (binding targets only for Annex-I). The Paris Agreement applies to all parties but maintains differentiation in terms of capacity and responsibility.
    • Friction Points: Debates over climate finance (the $100 billion/year goal), technology transfer, and the new ‘Loss and Damage’ fund are manifestations of this North-South divide. Developing countries argue that they need financial and technical support to transition to green economies without compromising their development goals.

  3. Human-Wildlife Conflict: A Development Challenge:

    • The declining populations of species like the Elephant, GIB, and Snow Leopard are directly linked to human activities such as habitat fragmentation, infrastructure development (power lines for GIB), and agricultural expansion.
    • This creates a classic ‘Environment vs. Development’ dilemma. Conservation efforts like ‘Project Elephant’ focus on securing corridors, which often traverse human-dominated landscapes, leading to conflict.
    • Solutions: Effective conservation requires a multi-pronged strategy: strict legal protection (WPA, 1972), landscape-level planning (Project Snow Leopard), community involvement (eco-development committees), and technological solutions (underground power lines). Balancing the aspirations of a developing nation with the imperative of biodiversity conservation is a key governance challenge for India.

  4. Role of Science in Policy Making:

    • The IPCC’s role is a prime example of the science-policy interface. Its assessment reports provide the scientific foundation upon which the UNFCCC and its protocols are built.
    • The increasing certainty and alarming predictions in successive IPCC reports (from AR1 to AR6) have created political urgency and public pressure for stronger climate action.
    • However, there can be a disconnect. Despite clear scientific warnings, political and economic interests often delay or weaken policy implementation, as seen in the slow progress on phasing out fossil fuels.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC CSE 2016)

    1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.
    2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
    3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (b)

    • Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect as the agreement required ratification by a certain number of countries to enter into force, and the effective year was not 2017. It entered into force in November 2016. Statement 3 is incorrect; the committed amount was 1000 billion. Statement 2 accurately describes the central aim of the Paris Agreement.

  2. The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of: (UPSC CSE 2016) (a) Pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East. (b) Plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change. (c) Capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank. (d) Plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals.

    Answer: (b)

    • Explanation: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) were the pledges made by countries under the UNFCCC in the run-up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, outlining their post-2020 climate actions. After ratification, they became Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).

  3. Consider the following statements regarding the ‘Indian Rhino Vision 2020’: (UPSC CSE 2017 - Adapted)

    1. It was a joint program of the Government of India and WWF-India.
    2. Its primary objective was to double the population of the Indian Rhinoceros.
    3. It involved translocating rhinos from Kaziranga National Park to other protected areas in Assam.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (b)

    • Explanation: Statement 1 is not entirely accurate; it was primarily an initiative of the Govt. of Assam (Department of Environment and Forest) in partnership with WWF-India and the International Rhino Foundation (IRF). Statement 2 is incorrect; the goal was to increase the population to at least 3,000, not necessarily to double it. Statement 3 is correct; translocation from Kaziranga and Pobitora to Manas and other areas was a key strategy.

  4. Which of the following are the most likely places to find the snow leopard in its natural habitat? (UPSC CSE 2019 - Adapted)

    1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary
    2. Gangotri National Park
    3. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary
    4. Manas National Park

    Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only

    Answer: (a)

    • Explanation: Snow leopards are found in high-altitude regions. Gangotri National Park (Uttarakhand) and Askot Wildlife Sanctuary (Uttarakhand) are in the high Himalayas and are known snow leopard habitats. Manas National Park (Assam) is at a lower altitude and is famous for tigers, elephants, and rhinos. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary (UP) is a part of the Terai ecosystem.

  5. With reference to the ‘Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use’ at COP26, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC CSE 2022 - Adapted) (a) It is a legally binding commitment to halt and reverse forest loss by 2030. (b) It was endorsed by all the members of the United Nations. (c) India was one of the signatories to this declaration. (d) The declaration aims to mobilize both public and private finance for its objectives.

    Answer: (d)

    • Explanation: This declaration, while significant, is not legally binding. It was signed by over 140 countries, but not all UN members. India did not sign the declaration, citing concerns about its potential impact on trade and land rights. The declaration indeed focuses on mobilizing finance from both public and private sources.

Mains

  1. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC CSE 2021, GS Paper III)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Briefly introduce COP26 as a critical summit held in Glasgow, UK, aimed at accelerating action towards the goals of the Paris Agreement and the UNFCCC.
    • Major Outcomes of COP26:
      • Glasgow Climate Pact: Mention its significance as the first-ever climate deal to explicitly plan to reduce the use of coal. Explain the language change from “phase-out” to “phase-down” of unabated coal power.
      • Finalizing the Paris Rulebook: Explain the agreement on the rules for international carbon markets (Article 6), which had been a sticking point since 2015.
      • Enhanced Ambition: Mention the pact’s call for countries to strengthen their 2030 emission reduction targets (NDCs) by the end of 2022.
      • Climate Finance: Discuss the disappointment over the failure of developed nations to meet the $100 billion annual goal and the new process established to set a post-2025 finance goal.
      • Sectoral Pledges: Mention other initiatives like the Global Methane Pledge and the Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests and Land Use.
    • India’s Commitments (Panchamrit):
      1. India will reach its non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030.
      2. India will meet 50 percent of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
      3. India will reduce the total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from now onwards till 2030.
      4. By 2030, India will reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by less than 45 percent.
      5. By the year 2070, India will achieve the target of Net Zero.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by stating that while COP26 made incremental progress and kept the 1.5°C goal alive, its success depends on the rigorous implementation of the pledges made, particularly by the major economies.

  2. The Paris Agreement represents a paradigm shift in global climate politics. Differentiate its approach from the Kyoto Protocol. (UPSC CSE 2018 - Adapted)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define the Paris Agreement (2015) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997) as the two most significant legal instruments under the UNFCCC to combat climate change. State that they represent fundamentally different approaches to international cooperation.
    • Differentiating the Approaches: Create a comparative table or use distinct paragraphs.
      • Legal Nature & Scope: Kyoto had legally binding, quantified emission reduction targets for developed (Annex I) countries only. Paris has a universal scope, applying to all countries, but the NDCs themselves are not internationally legally binding.
      • Approach (Top-down vs. Bottom-up): Kyoto was a “top-down” agreement where targets were negotiated internationally and assigned to countries. Paris is a “bottom-up” agreement where countries themselves determine their contributions (NDCs) based on their national circumstances.
      • Differentiation: Kyoto had a rigid bifurcation between Annex I and Non-Annex I countries based on the CBDR principle. Paris has a more nuanced system of “self-differentiation” where all parties must contribute, but the nature of their contribution reflects their national capabilities.
      • Scope of Action: Kyoto focused almost exclusively on mitigation for developed countries. Paris incorporates mitigation, adaptation, and finance as equally important pillars for all nations.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the shift from the Kyoto model to the Paris model was a pragmatic response to the failures of the former, particularly the lack of participation from major emitters like the USA and the rapidly growing emissions from emerging economies. The Paris Agreement’s flexibility ensured universal participation but places the onus of ambition and implementation squarely on the nations themselves.

  3. What is the ‘Loss and Damage’ mechanism in the context of climate negotiations? Discuss its significance for vulnerable developing countries. (UPSC CSE 2023 - Adapted)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define ‘Loss and Damage’ as the adverse impacts of climate change that occur despite, or in the absence of, mitigation and adaptation efforts. These can be economic (loss of infrastructure) or non-economic (loss of culture, biodiversity).
    • Evolution and Mechanism:
      • Trace its origin from the demands of Small Island Developing States (SIDS).
      • Mention the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage (WIM) established at COP19 (2013).
      • Explain the historic breakthrough at COP27 (2022) with the agreement to establish a dedicated ‘Loss and Damage Fund’.
      • Discuss the operationalization of the fund at COP28 (2023), with initial pledges from countries like the UAE and Germany.
    • Significance for Vulnerable Countries:
      • Recognition of Injustice: It is a formal acknowledgment of climate injustice—that countries least responsible for climate change are suffering the most from its impacts.
      • Financial Support: Provides a dedicated channel of finance to help countries recover and rebuild after climate-induced disasters (e.g., floods in Pakistan, hurricanes in the Caribbean).
      • Beyond Adaptation: It addresses impacts that are beyond the scope of what communities can adapt to, such as sea-level rise leading to permanent land loss.
      • Empowerment in Negotiations: It strengthens the voice of the Global South in climate talks, moving the discourse beyond just mitigation and adaptation to include liability and compensation.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the Loss and Damage fund is a crucial third pillar of climate action. However, its success will depend on its scale, accessibility, and the continuous and substantial financial commitments from developed nations to adequately address the escalating climate impacts in the most vulnerable parts of the world.

  4. Human-wildlife conflict is on the rise in India. Analyze the causes and suggest measures for its mitigation, with special reference to elephant corridors. (UPSC CSE 2020 - Adapted)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define human-wildlife conflict (HWC) as the negative interaction between humans and wildlife, leading to harm to both. State that with a large and dense human population coexisting with significant wildlife populations, India is a global hotspot for HWC.
    • Causes for the Rise in HWC:
      • Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Linear infrastructure (roads, railways, canals), mining, and agricultural expansion are breaking up habitats and corridors.
      • Changing Land-Use Patterns: Shift towards monoculture or cash crops that attract wildlife.
      • Population Dynamics: Increase in the population of certain species due to successful conservation (e.g., elephants, leopards) coupled with increasing human population.
      • Behavioral Changes: Decline in natural prey base forces predators to look for livestock.
      • Lack of Awareness: Local communities may not be equipped with the knowledge to avoid conflict situations.
    • Mitigation Measures with a Focus on Elephant Corridors:
      • Securing and Notifying Corridors: Legally protecting elephant corridors by declaring them as ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’ or acquiring land through community reserves/conservation reserves.
      • Technological Solutions: Use of early warning systems (SMS alerts, radio collars), sensor-based fences, and drones for monitoring elephant movement.
      • Habitat Management: Improving the quality of forest habitats by removing invasive species and creating water sources to prevent animals from straying out.
      • Community Participation: Involving local communities in conservation, providing them with alternative livelihoods, and promoting schemes like crop insurance and timely compensation for losses. (e.g., ‘Gaj Yatra’ campaign).
      • Policy and Legal Framework: Strengthening the implementation of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and incorporating HWC mitigation into all developmental project planning.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that mitigating HWC requires a landscape-level approach that moves beyond protected area boundaries. A strategy that integrates ecological needs, technological interventions, and socio-economic solutions for local communities is essential for fostering long-term coexistence.

  5. Critically Endangered species require urgent and targeted conservation efforts. Discuss the major threats and conservation initiatives for the Great Indian Bustard in India. (UPSC CSE 2019 - Adapted)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Introduce the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) as a flagship grassland species endemic to the Indian subcontinent and one of the heaviest flying birds. Mention its IUCN status of ‘Critically Endangered’ and its protection under Schedule I of the WPA, 1972.
    • Major Threats to the GIB:
      • Habitat Loss and Degradation: Conversion of grasslands into agricultural lands, industrial areas, and human settlements. Overgrazing also degrades the habitat.
      • Collision with Power Lines: This is the single largest threat. Due to their poor frontal vision and heavy bodies, GIBs cannot maneuver quickly and often collide with high-voltage power lines that crisscross their habitat.
      • Poaching and Hunting: Though reduced, hunting for its meat still poses a threat in some areas.
      • Other Threats: Disturbance of nesting sites by livestock and feral dogs, and use of pesticides in surrounding agricultural fields.
    • Conservation Initiatives:
      • Legal Protection: Listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and Appendix I of CITES, offering the highest degree of protection.
      • ‘Project Great Indian Bustard’: Launched by the Rajasthan government to identify and fence bustard breeding grounds and secure habitats.
      • Supreme Court Intervention (2021): A landmark judgment directing the conversion of overhead power lines to underground cables in GIB priority and potential habitats in Rajasthan and Gujarat, and the installation of bird diverters on existing lines.
      • Conservation Breeding Programme: A joint initiative of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), and state forest departments to create a captive population for reintroduction into the wild.
      • Habitat Improvement: Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats scheme of the central government provides funds for habitat management.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that despite these multi-pronged efforts, the GIB remains on the brink of extinction. The success of conservation hinges on the effective and timely implementation of the Supreme Court’s orders regarding power lines and the long-term viability of the captive breeding program, requiring sustained political will and financial investment.

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