5. Environment Notes 19

Elaborate Notes

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD)

The UNCBD emerged as one of the key agreements adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), popularly known as the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It represents a significant shift in international environmental law from a species-centric conservation approach to a more holistic, ecosystem-based one.

• Objectives: The Convention is guided by three main, interconnected goals:

  1. Conservation of Biological Diversity: This involves the protection of ecosystems, habitats, and species both in-situ (in their natural habitats) and ex-situ (outside their natural habitats, e.g., in gene banks or botanical gardens).
  2. Sustainable Use of its Components: This principle acknowledges that biodiversity is a resource for human well-being and economic development, but its use must be managed in a way that does not lead to its long-term decline.
  3. Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits: This objective, often termed Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS), addresses the historical inequity where genetic resources, often from developing countries rich in biodiversity, were utilized by developed nations for commercial purposes (e.g., pharmaceuticals) without adequate compensation to the source country or indigenous communities.

• Implementation and Legal Status: The UNCBD is administered by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It is a legally binding international treaty, meaning that signatory nations (Parties) are obligated to implement its provisions through national legislation and policies.

• Key Protocols:

  1. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000): This protocol addresses the potential risks posed by Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) created through modern biotechnology.
     • Historical Context: The late 20th century saw rapid advancements in genetic engineering, raising concerns about the potential ecological and health impacts of releasing genetically modified organisms into the environment.
     • Mechanism: It establishes an Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) procedure, requiring exporters to provide detailed information to importing countries before the first intentional transboundary movement of an LMO for release into the environment. This allows the importing country to make an informed decision based on a scientific risk assessment. It also established a Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH), an online platform for information exchange.
  2. Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (2010): This protocol operationalizes the third objective of the CBD.
     • Historical Context: For decades, developing countries argued against ‘biopiracy’. A notable example is the patenting of products derived from the Neem tree by foreign corporations, despite its traditional use in India for centuries.
     • Mechanism: The Nagoya Protocol creates a legal framework for Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS). It requires users of genetic resources to obtain Prior Informed Consent (PIC) from the provider country and negotiate Mutually Agreed Terms (MAT) to share the benefits (monetary, such as royalties, or non-monetary, such as technology transfer) from their use.

• Strategic Plans and Frameworks:

  • Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2010): Adopted at COP 10 in Nagoya, Japan, this was the “Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020.” It comprised 20 ambitious yet realistic targets under five strategic goals, covering issues from awareness-raising to direct conservation actions and mainstreaming biodiversity into national policies. Despite some progress, a 2020 UN report, the Global Biodiversity Outlook 5, concluded that none of the 20 targets were fully met.
  • Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) (2022): Adopted at COP 15, this framework succeeds the Aichi Targets and sets the agenda until 2050.
    • Structure: It lays out four long-term goals for 2050 (related to ecosystem integrity, sustainable use, benefit-sharing, and implementation means) and 23 action-oriented targets for 2030.
    • Key Target (30 by 30): Target 3 aims for the effective conservation and management of at least 30% of the world’s lands, inland waters, coastal areas, and oceans by 2030.
    • Financial Mechanism: It established the GBF Fund under the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to mobilize and disburse new and additional financial resources for its implementation.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

The UNCCD is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management. It was also an outcome of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, specifically addressing the concerns of African nations facing severe drought and desertification.

• Objective and Scope: Its primary aim is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought through effective action at all levels, supported by international cooperation. It focuses on arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, known as drylands, which are home to some of the world’s most vulnerable ecosystems and populations.
• Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN): This is a central concept promoted by the UNCCD, adopted as Target 15.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). LDN is a state where the amount and quality of land resources necessary to support ecosystem functions and services remain stable or increase within specified temporal and spatial scales. It promotes a balance between land degradation and land restoration.
• Conference of the Parties (COP):
  • COP14 (New Delhi, 2019): This event saw the adoption of the Delhi Declaration, which called for better land management and addressing issues like land tenure for women and youth. During this COP, India raised its ambition to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030, up from an earlier target of 21 million hectares.
  • COP15 (Abidjan, 2022): This conference focused on “Land. Life. Legacy: From scarcity to prosperity.” Key outcomes included a global pledge to accelerate the restoration of one billion hectares of degraded land by 2030 and a major focus on building drought resilience. The Abidjan Declaration specifically highlighted the critical role of securing women’s land rights for effective land restoration.

Sustainable Development

The concept gained international prominence with the publication of the “Our Common Future” report by the World Commission on Environment and Development (chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland) in 1987.

• Definition: “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This definition encapsulates the principle of inter-generational equity.
• Three Core Components: Sustainable development is often visualized as three overlapping circles or pillars:
  1. Environmental Sustainability: Protecting natural capital, ensuring the earth’s life support systems are not compromised, and living within the planet’s carrying capacity.
  2. Economic Sustainability: Maintaining a stable level of economic production that can continue indefinitely without depleting natural or social capital. It emphasizes efficiency, innovation, and responsible fiscal management.
  3. Social Sustainability: Ensuring social equity, justice, and cohesion. This includes providing access to basic needs like health and education, ensuring human rights, and promoting community participation and intra-generational equity.
• Key Metrics:
  • Ecological Footprint: Developed by Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees in the 1990s, this metric quantifies human demand on nature. It measures the amount of biologically productive land and water area an individual, population, or activity requires to produce all the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste. It is measured in global hectares (GHA).
  • Earth Overshoot Day: Calculated by the Global Footprint Network, this marks the date when humanity’s demand for ecological resources and services in a given year exceeds what Earth can regenerate in that year. In essence, it is the day we start operating in an ecological deficit.
  • Carrying Capacity: A concept from ecology, it refers to the maximum population size of a species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the available food, habitat, water, and other necessities.

Key Global Initiatives for Sustainable Development

1. 1798 - Malthusian Theory: In his “An Essay on the Principle of Population,” Thomas Malthus posited that population grows exponentially (geometrically) while food production grows arithmetically, leading inevitably to famine and population collapse. While his predictions were averted by technological advances, his work was a foundational text on resource limits.
2. 1972 - The Limits to Growth: A report commissioned by the Club of Rome and authored by researchers at MIT. Using the World3 computer simulation model, it predicted that unchecked economic and population growth on a finite planet would lead to a sharp decline in population and industrial capacity in the 21st century.
3. 1972 - Stockholm Conference (UN Conference on the Human Environment): The first major international conference on environmental issues, it placed the environment on the global political agenda and led to the creation of the UNEP. It reconciled the “development vs. environment” debate by acknowledging their interdependence.
4. 1992 - Rio Earth Summit (UNCED): A landmark event that produced five key outcomes:
   • Three legally binding conventions: UNFCCC, UNCBD, UNCCD.
   • Two non-binding instruments: the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (containing 27 principles like the Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays Principle) and Agenda 21 (a global action plan for sustainable development).
5. 2000 - Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): At the Millennium Summit, world leaders adopted eight time-bound goals to be achieved by 2015, focusing primarily on poverty, health, and education in developing countries.
6. 2012 - Rio+20 Summit: This conference focused on “a green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication.” Its outcome document, “The Future We Want,” initiated the process of developing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
7. 2015 - Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A universal set of 17 goals and 169 targets to be achieved by 2030. Unlike the MDGs, the SDGs are applicable to all countries and integrate all three dimensions of sustainable development.

Sustainable Agriculture

This is an approach to farming that aims to be ecologically sound, economically viable, and socially just. It integrates three main goals: environmental health, economic profitability, and social equity.

• Organic Farming: A system that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and genetically modified organisms. It relies on crop rotation, animal manures, crop residues, and biological pest control to maintain soil health and productivity. Certification is provided in India by bodies under the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) or through the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS).

• Natural Farming: An ecological farming approach advocated by Japanese farmer and philosopher Masanobu Fukuoka in his book “The One-Straw Revolution” (1975). It espouses a “do-nothing” philosophy, minimizing human intervention. Its core principles are no tillage, no chemical fertilizers, no pesticides, and no weeding.

• Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF): Popularized in India by agriculturist Subhash Palekar, it is a low-input, climate-resilient farming method. It is termed “zero budget” as it aims to eliminate the need for farmers to purchase external inputs, thereby breaking the debt cycle.

  • Four Pillars of ZBNF:
    1. Jivamrita: A fermented microbial culture made from cow dung, urine, jaggery, and pulse flour, used to enrich soil microbiology.
    2. Bijamrita: A microbial seed treatment to protect young roots from fungi.
    3. Acchadana (Mulching): Covering the soil with crop residues or other organic matter to conserve moisture and improve soil health.
    4. Whapasa (Soil Aeration): The condition where there are both air and water molecules present in the soil, which is considered essential for root health.

• Modern Agricultural Techniques:

  • Vertical Farming: The practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers, often in controlled environments like buildings or shipping containers.
  • Hydroponics: A method of growing plants without soil, using mineral nutrient solutions in a water solvent.
  • Aeroponics: The process of growing plants in an air or mist environment without the use of soil or an aggregate medium. The nutrient solution is sprayed directly onto the roots.
  • Aquaponics: A system that combines conventional aquaculture (raising aquatic animals) with hydroponics in a symbiotic environment. Effluents from the fish are used as nutrients for the plants.

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Prelims Pointers

• The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD) was an outcome of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.
• UNCBD is implemented by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
• UNCBD is a legally binding treaty.
• Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000) deals with the safe transfer and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs).
• The Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) procedure is a key component of the Cartagena Protocol.
• Nagoya Protocol (2010) pertains to Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS) of genetic resources.
• The Aichi Biodiversity Targets were a set of 20 targets for the period 2011-2020.
• The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) was adopted at COP 15.
• The GBF has 4 goals for 2050 and 23 targets for 2030.
• The “30 by 30” target aims to conserve 30% of Earth’s land and sea by 2030.
• The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is the sole legally binding international agreement on land management.
• The concept of Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) is central to the UNCCD and is also SDG Target 15.3.
• UNCCD COP14 was held in New Delhi (2019).
• India’s target is to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
• The term “Sustainable Development” was defined in the “Our Common Future” report by the Brundtland Commission (1987).
• Ecological Footprint is measured in Global Hectares (GHA).
• Earth Overshoot Day is calculated by the Global Footprint Network.
• The “Limits to Growth” report was published by the Club of Rome in 1972.
• Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration were outcomes of the 1992 Earth Summit.
• There are 8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) was promoted by Subhash Palekar.
• Four pillars of ZBNF are: Jivamrita, Bijamrita, Acchadana, and Whapasa.
• Hydroponics: Growing plants in nutrient-rich water without soil.
• Aeroponics: Growing plants by spraying nutrient mist on their roots in an air environment.

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Mains Insights

1. Challenges in Implementing International Environmental Conventions:

   • Sovereignty vs. Global Commons: A key challenge in implementing conventions like the UNCBD and UNFCCC is the tension between national sovereignty over resources and the collective responsibility for the global commons.
   • Finance and Technology Transfer: The success of frameworks like the Kunming-Montreal GBF heavily depends on the fulfillment of commitments by developed countries to provide adequate finance and technology to developing nations. The failure to meet past targets is often linked to a shortfall in this promised support. This is a recurring debate rooted in the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC).
   • Enforcement and Compliance: International environmental law often lacks strong enforcement mechanisms. Compliance relies on goodwill, peer pressure, and national-level implementation, which can be inconsistent across countries due to varying political will and capacity.

2. The Shift from MDGs to SDGs: A Paradigm Change:

   • Universality vs. Selectivity: MDGs were primarily targeted at developing countries, with developed nations positioned as donors. SDGs are universal and apply to all countries, acknowledging that challenges like inequality and unsustainable consumption are global.
   • Integration vs. Silos: MDGs were criticized for their siloed approach (e.g., health goals separate from environmental ones). SDGs are designed to be integrated and indivisible, recognizing that progress in one area (like clean energy, SDG 7) can drive progress in others (like health, SDG 3, and climate action, SDG 13).
   • Scope and Ambition: The 17 SDGs are far more comprehensive than the 8 MDGs, covering issues like climate change, sustainable consumption, and peace and justice, reflecting a more holistic understanding of development.

3. Sustainable Agriculture: A Double-Edged Sword for Food Security?

   • Cause-Effect Relationship: The Green Revolution, while ensuring food security, led to widespread land degradation, groundwater depletion, and loss of biodiversity due to its reliance on chemical inputs and monocultures. Sustainable agriculture methods like ZBNF and organic farming are a direct response to these negative externalities.
   • Debate on Scalability: A significant debate revolves around whether alternative farming models can be scaled up to feed a large population like India’s without compromising on yield. Proponents argue that in the long run, improved soil health leads to resilient and stable yields. Critics point to potential initial yield drops and challenges in the supply chain for organic inputs.
   • Policy Implications: The government’s push for these methods through schemes like Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) reflects a policy shift. However, for this transition to be successful, it requires a robust ecosystem of farmer training, certification, market linkages, and R&D to address productivity concerns.

4. Land Degradation as a Socio-Economic and Security Threat:

   • Linkages (GS-I, GS-III): Desertification is not merely an environmental issue. It directly impacts food security, causes water scarcity, and forces migration (environmental refugees), leading to social unrest and conflict over resources. This makes land restoration a critical component of national security and social stability.
   • Gender Dimension: As highlighted by the UNCCD COP15’s Abidjan Declaration, women are disproportionately affected by land degradation as they often lack secure land tenure yet are primarily responsible for agriculture and collecting water and firewood. Empowering women with land rights is crucial for effective restoration efforts.

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Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2016)

   1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.
   2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
   3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

   Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (b) Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect as the agreement required ratification by a certain number of countries to enter into force, which happened in Nov 2016, not 2017. Statement 3 is incorrect as the committed amount was $100billionayear,not$1000 billion.

2. The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (2016) (a) Pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East. (b) Plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change. (c) Capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank. (d) Plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals.

   Answer: (b) Explanation: INDCs (now NDCs) are the commitments made by each country under the Paris Agreement to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.

3. Consider the following statements: (2019)

   1. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management.
   2. It is the only convention that stems from a direct recommendation of the Rio Conference’s Agenda 21.
   3. It is focused on arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, known as the drylands.

   Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (d) Explanation: All three statements are factually correct descriptions of the UNCCD.

4. What is the importance of the ‘United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification’? (2016)

   1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships.
   2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates the allocation of a major portion of financial resources to these regions.
   3. It is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification.

   Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (c) Explanation: Statement 2 is incorrect. While it addresses issues in those regions, it doesn’t have a special financial focus limited to them; it has a global scope with a particular emphasis on Africa.

5. Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Mission for a Green India’? (2016)

   1. Increasing the forest/tree cover on 5 million hectares of forest/non-forest lands and improving the quality of forest cover on another 5 million hectares.
   2. Responding to climate change by a combination of adaptation and mitigation measures.
   3. Improving/enhancing ecosystem services like carbon sequestration and storage, hydrological services and biodiversity; along with provisioning services like fuel, fodder, and timber and non-timber forest produces (NTFPs).

   Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (d) Explanation: All three statements correctly describe the objectives of the Green India Mission, which is one of the missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

Mains

1. Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment. Analyze the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples. (2019, GS-III)

   Answer: Introduction: Coastal sand mining is the process of extracting sand from beaches, dunes, and coastal riverbeds. While vital for the construction industry, its unsustainable practice, both legal and illegal, poses severe environmental and socio-economic threats, undermining the principles of sustainable development.

   Impact of Sand Mining along Indian Coasts:

   1. Coastal Erosion and Habitat Destruction: The removal of sand disrupts the natural sediment budget of the coastline, leading to accelerated erosion. This was starkly seen along the coasts of Kerala (e.g., Alappad) and Tamil Nadu, where entire stretches of beaches have vanished, making coastal communities more vulnerable to storm surges and tsunamis. It also destroys critical habitats for species like Olive Ridley turtles (e.g., Odisha coast) and coastal vegetation that acts as a natural barrier.

   2. Saline Water Intrusion: Excessive sand mining from riverbeds near the coast lowers the riverbed, allowing saline seawater to intrude further upstream. This contaminates freshwater aquifers, impacting drinking water sources and agriculture in coastal regions, as observed in parts of the Vamsadhara river delta in Andhra Pradesh.

   3. Loss of Biodiversity: Coastal ecosystems, including estuaries and mangrove forests, are highly sensitive to changes in sediment flow. Mining activities destroy benthic organisms and disrupt the food chain for coastal and marine life. The degradation of sand dunes, which are unique ecosystems, also leads to a loss of specialized flora and fauna.

   4. Socio-economic Impacts: The erosion of land leads to the loss of property and livelihoods for coastal communities, particularly fishing communities who depend on the beach for their activities. It also damages coastal infrastructure like roads and buildings. Illegal sand mining often creates a law and order problem, involving a powerful “sand mafia” that exploits labor and operates outside the legal framework.

   Conclusion: The threat from unsustainable sand mining requires a multi-pronged approach based on the principles of sustainable development. This includes strict enforcement of Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) norms, promoting alternatives like manufactured sand (M-sand), utilizing technology like satellite imagery to monitor illegal activities, and empowering local communities as stewards of their coastal resources. A balance between development needs and environmental protection is imperative for the long-term sustainability of India’s coastlines.

2. Discuss the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades. (2021, GS-I)

   Answer: Introduction: India’s unique tectonic setting, with the Indian Plate colliding with the Eurasian Plate, makes it highly vulnerable to earthquakes. About 59% of India’s land area is prone to seismic hazards of varying intensities. This vulnerability is exacerbated by high population density and non-compliant building structures in risk zones.

   Vulnerability of India to Earthquake-Related Hazards:

   • Tectonic Setting: The Himalayan region lies in Zone V (very severe intensity) due to the continental collision, making it the most active seismic zone. The Indo-Gangetic plains are also at risk. The Koyna region in Maharashtra is an example of reservoir-induced seismicity.
   • High Population Density: High density in seismic zones, particularly in unplanned urban areas, increases the risk of high casualties and economic loss.
   • Unsafe Building Codes: A significant percentage of buildings, especially in rural and semi-urban areas, do not adhere to the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) codes for earthquake-resistant construction, making them highly vulnerable to collapse.
   • Secondary Hazards: Earthquakes in India often trigger secondary disasters like landslides in the Himalayas, liquefaction in alluvial plains, and tsunamis along the coast.

   Major Earthquake Disasters in the Last Three Decades:

   1. 1993 Latur Earthquake (Maharashtra):

      • Salient Features: An intra-plate earthquake in a region previously considered stable (Zone I). It caused massive devastation (~10,000 deaths) primarily due to the collapse of poorly constructed stone houses. It highlighted the risk of earthquakes even in supposedly “safe” zones and led to a revision of India’s seismic zonation map.

   2. 2001 Bhuj Earthquake (Gujarat):

      • Salient Features: A high-intensity earthquake (7.7 magnitude) in a known seismic zone (Zone V). It caused over 20,000 deaths and widespread destruction of infrastructure in cities like Bhuj and Ahmedabad. It exposed the vulnerability of modern multi-storied buildings that were not earthquake-resistant and led to significant reforms in disaster management architecture, including the enactment of the Disaster Management Act, 2005.

   3. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (caused by an earthquake off Sumatra):

      • Salient Features: While the earthquake’s epicenter was not in India, the resulting tsunami devastated India’s Andaman & Nicobar Islands and the southeastern coastline (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh). It was a trans-boundary disaster that highlighted the lack of an early warning system in the Indian Ocean. This led to the establishment of the Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS) in Hyderabad.

   Conclusion: India’s seismic vulnerability is a complex interplay of natural geology and man-made factors. While earthquakes cannot be prevented, their impact can be mitigated through a robust framework that includes strict enforcement of building codes, retrofitting of critical infrastructure, advanced early warning systems, and sustained public awareness campaigns, embodying the principles of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.

3. How does biodiversity vary in India? How is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 helpful in the conservation of flora and fauna? (2018, GS-III)

4. Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how understanding this concept is vital for sustainable development. (2019, GS-III)

5. What are the salient features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan launched by the Government of India for water conservation and water security? (2020, GS-II)