5. Environment Notes 20

Elaborate Notes

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a formal process used to predict the environmental consequences (positive or negative) of a plan, policy, program, or project prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. As articulated by the International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA), EIA is “the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made.”

• Core Purpose and Benefits:

  • Predictive Tool: It serves as a proactive tool for environmental management by forecasting potential impacts. For instance, an EIA for a proposed dam on a river would analyze impacts on downstream hydrology, aquatic biodiversity, and local community displacement.
  • Comparative Analysis: It systematically compares alternatives. A proposal for a thermal power plant might have alternatives like a different location, a different cooling technology (e.g., dry vs. wet cooling towers), or even an alternative energy source like solar, evaluating each for its environmental and economic viability.
  • Mitigation and Management: It helps in formulating an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to mitigate adverse effects. For a mining project, an EMP would detail plans for topsoil management, overburden disposal, and post-mining land reclamation.
  • Stakeholder Engagement: It provides a structured platform for involving affected communities and other stakeholders, thereby upholding principles of environmental justice and preventing future conflicts. The public hearing process, though often contentious, is a cornerstone of this engagement.
  • Resource Optimisation: By identifying potential environmental costs early, EIA can lead to more efficient project design and resource use, ultimately reducing long-term costs associated with environmental degradation and remediation.

• Underlying Principles:

  • Participation: Involving all relevant stakeholders, especially the local communities who are most affected. The landmark Niyamgiri mining case in Odisha, where the Dongria Kondh tribe’s consent was sought (and denied) following a Supreme Court order (2013), exemplifies the significance of this principle.
  • Transparency: All assessment-related documents and decisions should be open and accessible to the public. This principle is often operationalized through the Right to Information Act, 2005.
  • Accountability: The project proponent and the decision-making authority are responsible for the impacts of the project. This includes ensuring compliance with the conditions laid down in the Environmental Clearance (EC).
  • Integrated Assessment: The assessment must consider not only direct environmental impacts but also social, economic, cultural, and health impacts in an integrated manner.

• The EIA Process in India: The process is a structured, multi-stage procedure:

  1. Project Proposal & Screening: The proponent submits a detailed project proposal. The Screening committee then determines if the project falls under Category A (national appraisal) or Category B (state appraisal) as per the EIA Notification, 2006. For example, large thermal power plants (>500 MW) are typically Category A.
  2. Scoping: The Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) or State EAC (SEAC) determines the detailed scope of the EIA study, known as the Terms of Reference (ToR). This step defines the key impacts to be studied, preventing the collection of irrelevant data.
  3. Impact Analysis & Mitigation: This is the core technical phase where data is collected and impacts are predicted using various models. Mitigation measures are then proposed to minimize adverse impacts.
  4. Reporting (EIA Report): A comprehensive EIA report is prepared, including the Environmental Management Plan (EMP).
  5. Review and Public Hearing: The report is reviewed by experts and made available to the public. A public hearing is conducted by the State Pollution Control Board to record the views and concerns of the local affected people.
  6. Appraisal & Decision Making: The EAC/SEAC appraises the final EIA report and the public hearing outcomes, and makes a recommendation to the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) or the State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) for grant or rejection of Environmental Clearance.
  7. Post-Clearance Monitoring: After the project is commissioned, the proponent must submit regular compliance reports to the regional office of the MoEFCC to ensure that environmental safeguards are being implemented.

• Historical Evolution in India:

  • The genesis of EIA in India can be traced to a 1976-77 Planning Commission directive asking the Department of Science and Technology to scrutinize river valley projects. Initially, this was an administrative measure without legislative backing.
  • The Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) was a critical turning point, highlighting the need for robust environmental regulations.
  • This led to the enactment of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA), an umbrella legislation for environmental protection.
  • Using the powers conferred by Section 3 of the EPA, the first EIA Notification was issued in 1994, making Environmental Clearance (EC) a mandatory legal requirement for a list of specified projects.
  • This was superseded by the EIA Notification of 2006, which decentralized the process by introducing State-level authorities (SEIAA and SEAC) and categorizing projects (A, B1, B2) based on their potential impact.
  • A controversial Draft EIA Notification was proposed in 2020, which faced widespread criticism for provisions like institutionalizing post-facto clearance (legalizing projects that started without clearance) and reducing the time for public consultation.

Environmental Ethics

Environmental ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human contents.

• Anthropocentrism (Human-centered): This worldview, deeply rooted in Western thought (e.g., Judeo-Christian traditions), posits that human beings are the central or most significant entities in the world. Nature is valued primarily for its utility to humans (instrumental value).
• Non-Anthropocentrism: This is a broad category of worldviews that challenge the anthropocentric position.
  • Psychocentrism: Argues that beings with mental capacities (consciousness, sentience) have higher moral value. While it extends moral consideration beyond humans to many animals, it may still exclude plants and non-sentient organisms.
  • Biocentrism (Life-centered): This perspective extends inherent value to all living things. Philosopher Paul W. Taylor in his work “Respect for Nature” (1986) argued that every living organism is a “teleological-center-of-life” pursuing its own good, and thus possesses inherent worth.
• Deep Ecology vs. Shallow Ecology: These terms were coined by Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss in 1973.
  • Shallow Ecology: An anthropocentric approach where the environment is preserved solely for human benefit (e.g., conserving a forest to ensure a sustainable supply of timber and clean water for a nearby city).
  • Deep Ecology: An ecocentric viewpoint that advocates for a radical shift in human consciousness. It argues that ecosystems and all living beings have an intrinsic value, independent of their usefulness to humans. It calls for reducing human population and consumption to allow the non-human world to flourish.
• Social Ecology: Developed primarily by Murray Bookchin in the 1960s, this school of thought links ecological problems directly to social problems. Bookchin argued that environmental destruction stems from hierarchical and exploitative social structures (like capitalism and patriarchy). The solution to the ecological crisis, therefore, lies in creating a more egalitarian, decentralized, and cooperative society.

Evolution

Evolution is the process of change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.

• Darwin’s Theory: Charles Darwin’s seminal work, On the Origin of Species (1859), proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection. Its core tenets are that organisms produce more offspring than can survive, there is variation within populations, some of these variations are heritable, and individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits to the next generation.
• Geological Time Scale and Key Events:
  • Pre-Cambrian Eon (c. 4.6 bya - 541 mya): This period covers almost 90% of Earth’s history.
    • Life began with the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA), a prokaryotic organism.
    • The evolution of photosynthesis in Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae) led to the Great Oxidation Event (c. 2.4 bya), which fundamentally changed the atmosphere and paved the way for aerobic respiration.
    • The first eukaryotes (complex cells with a nucleus) and multicellular organisms like sponges, and later cnidarians (jellyfish, corals), emerged.
  • Paleozoic Era (541-252 mya):
    • Ordovician Period: Marked by the diversification of marine life. The first vertebrates (jawless proto-fish) appeared. This period ended with the first mass extinction, likely caused by global cooling and glaciation.
    • Silurian Period: A crucial period for terrestrial life. The evolution of vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) and lignin allowed plants to grow taller and colonize land, starting with simple forms like cooksonia.
    • Devonian Period (“Age of Fishes”): Saw a great diversification of fish, including cartilaginous (sharks) and bony fish. Amphibians, the first four-limbed vertebrates (tetrapods), evolved from lobe-finned fishes to exploit terrestrial environments. The period ended with the second mass extinction, affecting marine life severely.
    • Carboniferous Period: Extensive forests of giant ferns and clubmosses dominated the landscape, their remains forming the coal deposits we use today. Reptiles evolved, with a key innovation: the amniotic egg, which allowed them to reproduce away from water.
    • Permian Period: The supercontinent Pangaea formed. The era ended with the Permian-Triassic extinction event (“The Great Dying”), the third and most severe mass extinction, wiping out over 90% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species, likely due to massive volcanic eruptions (Siberian Traps) causing runaway climate change.
  • Mesozoic Era (“Age of Reptiles”) (252-66 mya):
    • Triassic Period: Following the Great Dying, ecosystems slowly recovered. The first dinosaurs and early mammals evolved. The period ended with the fourth mass extinction, which eliminated many large amphibians and reptiles, allowing dinosaurs to become dominant.
    • Jurassic-Cretaceous Periods: Dinosaurs dominated terrestrial ecosystems. Angiosperms (flowering plants) appeared and diversified, co-evolving with insects. The era ended with the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, the fifth mass extinction, which wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs. This was caused by the impact of a large asteroid in the Yucatán Peninsula (Chicxulub crater) and associated volcanic activity.
  • Cenozoic Era (“Age of Mammals”) (66 mya - present):
    • With the dinosaurs gone, mammals diversified to fill ecological niches.
    • Apes evolved, and from one lineage, hominins emerged. Key characteristics of human evolution include bipedalism (walking upright), a significant increase in brain size, the development of complex tool-making, and the evolution of language and culture, allowing for the cumulative transmission of knowledge.

Wildlife: Key Species

• Sarus Crane (Antigone antigone):
  • The world’s tallest flying bird. It is the official state bird of Uttar Pradesh.
  • Habitat: Primarily wetlands, marshes, and agricultural fields.
  • Status: Listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Threats include habitat loss due to wetland drainage for agriculture, pollution, and collision with power lines. It is protected under Schedule IV of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
• Sea Turtles in India:
  • India’s waters host five species: Olive Ridley, Green, Hawksbill, Loggerhead, and Leatherback.
  • Olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea): Famous for its synchronized mass nesting phenomenon called Arribada. Major nesting sites in India are on the Odisha coast, including Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary, Rushikulya, and Devi River mouth. IUCN Status: Vulnerable.
  • Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea): The largest sea turtle. IUCN Status: Vulnerable. Nests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
  • Conservation Initiatives:
    • Operation Oliva: A coast guard operation to protect Olive Ridley turtles during their nesting season in Odisha.
    • Operation Save Kurma: A species-specific operation on turtles, coordinated by the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB).
• Crocodiles in India:
  • Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus): A fish-eating crocodile with a distinctive long, thin snout. Found primarily in the clear rivers of the Gangetic basin, with its main population in the Chambal River. IUCN Status: Critically Endangered.
  • Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris): A freshwater crocodile found in marshes, lakes, and rivers throughout the Indian subcontinent. IUCN Status: Vulnerable.
  • Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus): The largest living reptile. Found in coastal areas, estuaries, and mangrove swamps of eastern India (Bhitarkanika National Park, Sundarbans) and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. IUCN Status: Least Concern.
• Gangetic River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica):
  • India’s National Aquatic Animal. It is a freshwater dolphin found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system in India, Nepal, and Bangladesh.
  • It is practically blind and uses echolocation to navigate and hunt. Locally known as ‘Susu’.
  • IUCN Status: Endangered. Threats include dam construction, pollution, and accidental entanglement in fishing nets. Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary in Bihar is a protected area for them.
• Vultures in India:
  • India has 9 species of vultures. They are vital scavengers.
  • Their populations crashed by over 95% in the 1990s due to the veterinary drug Diclofenac, which causes renal failure in vultures that feed on carcasses of treated cattle.
  • Critically Endangered Species:
    1. White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)
    2. Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris)
    3. Long-billed Vulture (Indian Vulture) (Gyps indicus)
    4. Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus)
  • Conservation: The “Action Plan for Vulture Conservation 2020-2025” has been launched. “Vulture Safe Zones” are being created where the use of Diclofenac and other harmful NSAIDs (like Ketoprofen) is minimized.
• Mahseer:
  • A large freshwater fish, often called the “Tiger of the Water”.
  • Golden Mahseer (Tor putitora): Found in Himalayan rivers. IUCN Status: Endangered.
  • Hump-backed Mahseer (Tor remadevii): Found exclusively in the Cauvery river basin. IUCN Status: Critically Endangered.

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Prelims Pointers

• EIA in India is legally backed by the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• The first EIA notification was issued in 1994, later replaced by the EIA Notification, 2006.
• Category A projects under EIA 2006 require appraisal at the National Level (MoEFCC).
• Category B projects are appraised at the State Level (SEIAA). Category B is further divided into B1 (EIA mandatory) and B2 (EIA not mandatory).
• Deep Ecology was a term coined by Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss. It assigns intrinsic value to all living beings.
• Social Ecology links environmental issues to social hierarchies, a concept developed by Murray Bookchin.
• The First Mass Extinction occurred at the end of the Ordovician period.
• Land plants first appeared during the Silurian period.
• Amphibians evolved during the Devonian period.
• Reptiles evolved during the Carboniferous period.
• The largest mass extinction, “The Great Dying,” occurred at the end of the Permian period.
• The extinction of dinosaurs occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period (Fifth Mass Extinction).
• Sarus Crane: State bird of Uttar Pradesh; IUCN Status - Vulnerable.
• Olive Ridley Turtles: Known for mass nesting called Arribada; IUCN Status - Vulnerable.
• Operation Oliva is conducted by the Indian Coast Guard for the protection of Olive Ridley Turtles.
• Gharial: Found in Chambal River; IUCN Status - Critically Endangered.
• Mugger Crocodile: Freshwater crocodile; IUCN Status - Vulnerable.
• Saltwater Crocodile: IUCN Status - Least Concern.
• Gangetic River Dolphin: National Aquatic Animal of India; IUCN Status - Endangered.
• The veterinary drug responsible for the decline of vulture populations is Diclofenac.
• Critically Endangered vultures in India include: White-backed, Slender-billed, Long-billed, and Red-headed vultures.
• Golden Mahseer: IUCN Status - Endangered.
• Hump-backed Mahseer: Found in the Cauvery River; IUCN Status - Critically Endangered.

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Mains Insights

• EIA: A Tool for Sustainable Development or a Procedural Hurdle?
  • Cause-Effect: The stringent implementation of EIA can lead to more environmentally sustainable projects and prevent ecological disasters. However, procedural delays, corruption, and poor-quality reports often dilute its effectiveness, turning it into a mere formality. This can cause project cost overruns and foster a negative perception among investors.
  • Debate: The core debate revolves around “Environment vs. Development.” Proponents of stronger EIA argue it’s essential for upholding the Precautionary Principle and ensuring inter-generational equity. Critics argue that the current process is cumbersome and non-transparent, hindering economic growth. The Draft EIA 2020 amplified this debate by proposing to legitimize projects that violate the law (post-facto clearance), which critics argue undermines the very purpose of EIA.
  • Way Forward: Reforms should focus on enhancing the capacity of appraisal committees, making the process more transparent through digital platforms, ensuring meaningful public participation instead of tokenism, and imposing strong penalties for non-compliance.
• Environmental Ethics in Policy Making
  • Shift in Paradigm: Indian environmental jurisprudence has shown a gradual shift from a purely anthropocentric to a more ecocentric approach. The Supreme Court’s judgments in cases like M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India have established principles like “Polluter Pays” and the “Precautionary Principle.”
  • Rights of Nature: The decision by the Uttarakhand High Court (2017) to grant legal personality to the Ganga and Yamuna rivers was a landmark move towards recognizing the intrinsic rights of nature, an idea rooted in Deep Ecology. Although later stayed by the Supreme Court on practical grounds, it ignited a significant debate on the legal framework for environmental protection.
  • Relevance for GS-IV (Ethics): These ethical frameworks help in resolving ethical dilemmas in environmental governance. For example, when deciding on a development project in a forested area, an administrator must weigh the anthropocentric benefits (jobs, energy) against the biocentric/ecocentric values (loss of biodiversity, rights of indigenous communities whose culture is tied to the forest).
• The Anthropocene and the Sixth Mass Extinction
  • Context: While the Earth has witnessed five natural mass extinctions, scientists argue we are now in the midst of a sixth mass extinction, driven by human activities (the Anthropocene). The current rate of species extinction is estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times higher than the natural background rate.
  • Causal Factors: The primary drivers are habitat destruction (deforestation, urbanization), climate change, pollution (plastics, chemicals), overexploitation of resources (overfishing, poaching), and the spread of invasive species.
  • Implications: This has profound implications for ecosystem stability, food security, and human well-being. The loss of biodiversity weakens the resilience of ecosystems to environmental shocks and disrupts critical services like pollination and water purification. This is a crucial analytical point for GS-I (Geography) and GS-III (Environment & Biodiversity).
• Challenges in Wildlife Conservation in India
  • Human-Wildlife Conflict: As human populations expand and encroach upon natural habitats, conflicts with wildlife (e.g., elephants raiding crops, leopard attacks near urban fringes) are increasing. This poses a major challenge to conservation efforts and requires integrated landscape-level management strategies rather than just focusing on protected areas.
  • Funding and Focus: Conservation efforts are often skewed towards charismatic megafauna like tigers and elephants (“species-centric approach”), while lesser-known species and habitats (like grasslands and wetlands) receive less attention and funding.
  • Community Participation: The success of conservation depends heavily on the support of local communities. Models like Joint Forest Management (JFM) and community reserves are steps in the right direction, but their implementation is often weak. Empowering communities and ensuring they receive tangible benefits from conservation is critical for long-term success.

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Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. Why is a plant called Prosopis juliflora often mentioned in the news? (UPSC CSE 2018) (a) Its extract is widely used in cosmetics. (b) It tends to reduce the biodiversity in the area in which it grows. (c) Its extract is used for the synthesis of pesticides. (d) None of the above. Answer: (b) It is an invasive species that outcompetes native vegetation, leading to a reduction in biodiversity.

2. In India, the use of which one of the following has been a cause of concern for the decline in the population of vultures? (UPSC CSE 2022) (a) Diclofenac (b) Chloroquine (c) Penicillin (d) Testosterone Answer: (a) Diclofenac, a veterinary anti-inflammatory drug, is highly toxic to vultures and caused a catastrophic decline in their population.

3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2019)

   1. Asiatic lion is naturally found in India only.
   2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.
   3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (a) Asiatic lions are found naturally only in the Gir forest of India. The Double-humped camel is also found in Central Asia, and the One-horned rhinoceros is also found in Nepal.

4. Which of the following are in Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (b) Mudumalai, Sathyamangalam and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Silent Valley National Park (c) Kaundinya, Gundla Brahmeswaram and Papikonda Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Mukurthi National Park (d) Kawal and Sri Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve Answer: (a) The Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve includes these protected areas in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

5. With reference to India’s biodiversity, Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith barbet, Gray-chinned minivet and White-throated redstart are: (UPSC CSE 2020) (a) Birds (b) Primates (c) Reptiles (d) Amphibians Answer: (a) All the species mentioned are types of birds found in India.

Mains

1. What is the significance of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process in India? Critically evaluate the effectiveness of the EIA process in regulating developmental projects and protecting the environment. (GS-III) Answer Outline:

   • Introduction: Define EIA as a statutory tool under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, aimed at integrating environmental concerns into the development process to achieve sustainable development.
   • Significance:
     • Provides a baseline study of the environment.
     • Predicts potential adverse impacts and suggests mitigation measures (EMP).
     • Ensures public participation and democratic decision-making.
     • Acts as a tool to uphold the Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays Principle.
     • Helps in evaluating alternatives for better environmental and economic outcomes.
   • Critical Evaluation of Effectiveness (Challenges):
     • Poor Quality Reports: EIA reports are often prepared by non-credible agencies, leading to “cut-paste” jobs with inaccurate data.
     • Issues with Public Hearings: Hearings are often a mere formality, conducted in intimidating environments, with technical reports not accessible in local languages.
     • Lack of Post-Clearance Monitoring: Inadequate monitoring of compliance with EC conditions allows proponents to flout environmental norms.
     • Dilution of Norms: The Draft EIA 2020 controversy over provisions like post-facto clearance highlights a trend of weakening environmental regulations for “ease of doing business.”
     • Expert Committees: The independence and expertise of appraisal committees are often questioned.
   • Conclusion: Conclude by stating that while EIA is a crucial tool, its effectiveness is hampered by implementation gaps. Suggest reforms like capacity building, creating an independent EIA authority, using technology for monitoring, and strengthening public participation to make it a more robust instrument for environmental protection.

2. Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment. Analyze the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples. (UPSC CSE 2019, GS-III) Answer Outline:

   • Introduction: Define coastal sand mining and state its increasing demand due to construction. Mention that it threatens coastal ecosystems and livelihoods.
   • Impact of Sand Mining:
     • Coastal Erosion: Removal of sand disrupts the natural sediment budget, leading to the erosion of beaches and making coastal areas more vulnerable to storms and tsunamis. Example: Coasts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
     • Saline Water Intrusion: Depletion of coastal sand beds and riverbeds near the coast can lower the water table, leading to the intrusion of saltwater into freshwater aquifers, affecting drinking water and agriculture. Example: Vellar estuary in Tamil Nadu.
     • Loss of Biodiversity: Destroys habitats for coastal and marine organisms, including nesting grounds for sea turtles (e.g., Olive Ridleys on the Odisha coast) and damages mangrove ecosystems and coral reefs.
     • Impact on Livelihoods: Affects coastal fishing communities by destroying fish breeding grounds and reducing fish catch.
     • Infrastructure Damage: Leads to the undermining of bridges, coastal roads, and buildings.
   • Conclusion: Summarize the severe, multifaceted impacts of sand mining. Suggest sustainable solutions like promoting manufactured sand (M-sand), recycling construction debris, implementing strict regulations with drone-based monitoring, and involving local communities in coastal management.

3. Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how understanding this concept is vital while planning for the sustainable development of a region. (UPSC CSE 2019, GS-III) Answer Outline:

   • Introduction: Define carrying capacity as the maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available.
   • Relevance to Environment: Explain that exceeding the carrying capacity leads to environmental degradation, resource depletion, increased pollution, and ultimately, a population crash or decline.
   • Vital for Sustainable Development Planning:
     • Urban Planning: Helps in planning for cities by assessing the availability of water, waste management capacity, and housing, preventing the creation of unsustainable urban sprawls.
     • Tourism Management: Essential for ecotourism and managing tourist inflow in ecologically sensitive areas like hill stations (e.g., Shimla) or islands (e.g., Andaman) to prevent overuse and degradation.
     • Resource Management: Informs policies for managing natural resources like water, forests, and fisheries to prevent over-extraction.
     • Industrial Siting: Helps in determining the number and type of industries a region can support without irreversible damage to its air and water quality.
     • Agricultural Planning: Guides sustainable agricultural practices to prevent soil degradation and depletion of groundwater.
   • Conclusion: Conclude that integrating the concept of carrying capacity into developmental planning is fundamental for ensuring that development is ecologically sound, socially equitable, and economically viable, thereby achieving the true essence of sustainable development.

4. The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court. Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws. (UPSC CSE 2022, GS-II) Answer Outline:

   • Introduction: Briefly state that in the absence of strong executive action, the Indian judiciary, particularly the Supreme Court, has played a proactive role in environmental protection by interpreting constitutional provisions creatively.
   • Constitutionalization of Environmental Problems:
     • Expansion of Article 21 (Right to Life): The SC expanded the right to life to include the right to a clean and healthy environment. Case: Subhash Kumar vs. State of Bihar (1991), where the court held that the right to life includes the right to enjoy unpolluted water and air.
     • Enforcing Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties: The judiciary used DPSP (Art 48A) and Fundamental Duties (Art 51A(g)) to mandate state action and citizen responsibility. Case: M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak case, 1987), which led to the evolution of the ‘Absolute Liability’ principle.
     • Development of Jurisprudence: The SC introduced key environmental law principles. Case: Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum vs. Union of India (1996), where the principles of ‘Precautionary Principle’ and ‘Polluter Pays’ were explicitly adopted as the law of the land.
     • Public Trust Doctrine: The court declared that the state is a trustee of natural resources meant for public use and cannot allow their exploitation by private interests. Case: M.C. Mehta vs. Kamal Nath (1997).
     • Public Interest Litigation (PIL): The liberalisation of locus standi allowed citizens and NGOs to approach the court on behalf of the environment and affected communities, making the judiciary accessible.
   • Conclusion: Conclude that through judicial activism and expansive interpretation of the Constitution, the Supreme Court has created a robust legal framework for environmental protection, filling legislative and executive voids and making the right to a healthy environment a fundamental right.

5. What are the major causes of the depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology? (UPSC CSE 2019, GS-I) Answer Outline:

   • Introduction: Define mangroves as salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in coastal intertidal zones, and highlight their ecological and economic significance.
   • Major Causes of Depletion:
     • Anthropogenic Causes:
       • Aquaculture and Agriculture: Conversion of mangrove forests into shrimp farms and paddy fields.
       • Urbanization: Coastal development, construction of ports, industries, and residential areas.
       • Pollution: Industrial effluents, sewage, and agricultural runoff degrade the water quality essential for mangrove survival.
       • Overexploitation: Felling for timber, firewood, and charcoal production.
     • Natural Causes:
       • Climate Change: Sea-level rise submerges mangrove forests.
       • Natural Disasters: Cyclones, tsunamis, and storm surges can physically destroy mangrove stands.
   • Importance in Maintaining Coastal Ecology:
     • Coastal Protection: Act as a natural barrier (‘bio-shield’) against tsunamis, cyclones, and coastal erosion by dissipating wave energy.
     • Biodiversity Hotspot: Serve as a critical habitat, nursery, and breeding ground for a vast array of marine and terrestrial species, including fish, crabs, shrimp, and birds.
     • Carbon Sequestration: Mangrove ecosystems are highly effective carbon sinks (‘blue carbon’), sequestering carbon at a much higher rate than terrestrial forests.
     • Water Purification: The dense root systems of mangroves trap sediments and pollutants, thus maintaining water quality.
     • Livelihood Support: Support coastal communities by providing fish, timber, honey, and opportunities for tourism.
   • Conclusion: Reiterate the invaluable role of mangroves and call for urgent conservation efforts through community participation, stringent regulation, and afforestation programs like the ‘Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI)’ to protect these vital coastal ecosystems.