GS Notes

Environment Notes 18

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Timeline of Various Developments/Initiatives

  • 1987: Brundtland Report (‘Our Common Future’)

    • The report was published by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), chaired by the former Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland.
    • It is a landmark document in the history of environmentalism as it popularized the concept of “Sustainable Development.”
    • The report defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
    • It established the three fundamental pillars of sustainability: environmental protection, economic growth, and social equity. This framework argued that these three elements are interconnected and must be pursued simultaneously. Its publication set the stage for the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.

  • 1988: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

    • The IPCC was established jointly by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
    • Its primary role is not to conduct new research but to assess and synthesize the vast body of scientific, technical, and socio-economic literature produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change.
    • It provides policymakers with regular scientific assessments on climate change, its implications, and potential future risks, as well as to put forward adaptation and mitigation options. Its Assessment Reports (ARs) are crucial inputs for international climate negotiations under the UNFCCC.

  • 1989: Basel Convention

    • The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal was adopted in response to the “toxic colonialism” crisis of the 1980s, where developed nations were found dumping hazardous waste in developing countries.
    • Its core principle is the regulation of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes through a Prior Informed Consent (PIC) mechanism. This requires the exporting country to obtain the written consent of the importing and transit countries before any shipment.
    • A key exclusion is radioactive waste, which is covered under the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The convention also promotes the environmentally sound management (ESM) of wastes.

  • 1992: Rio Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development - UNCED)

    • This was a pivotal event that brought global attention to the concept of sustainable development.
    • Major Outcomes:
      1. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: A set of 27 principles to guide sustainable development.
      2. Agenda 21: A comprehensive global plan of action for sustainable development.
      3. Statement of Forest Principles: A non-legally binding document on the conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests.
      4. Establishment of three key conventions:
        • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): To stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
        • United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD): For the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
        • United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): To combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought.

  • 1997: Kyoto Protocol

    • Adopted at the third Conference of the Parties (COP3) to the UNFCCC in Kyoto, Japan.
    • It was the first international treaty to set legally binding targets for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions for industrialized countries.
    • It operated on the principle of “Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities” (CBDR-RC), placing the primary responsibility on developed nations (listed in Annex I) to reduce emissions. Developing countries (Non-Annex I) had no binding targets.

  • 1998: Rotterdam Convention

    • The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade.
    • It promotes shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals.
    • It facilitates information exchange about their characteristics and provides for a national decision-making process on their import and export. The listing of a chemical does not imply a ban but triggers the PIC procedure. It is a legally binding treaty.

  • 2000: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

    • An additional agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD).
    • It aims to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology.
    • It establishes a Prior Informed Consent procedure for the transboundary movement of LMOs intended for introduction into the environment.

  • 2001: Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

    • A global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms, and are toxic.
    • POPs exhibit characteristics of persistence, bioaccumulation, biomagnification, and long-range environmental transport.
    • The convention initially targeted twelve POPs, known as the “Dirty Dozen,” which included pesticides like DDT and industrial chemicals like PCBs. The list has since been expanded.

  • 2002 & 2012: Johannesburg (Rio+10) & Rio+20 Summits

    • These were follow-up conferences to the 1992 Earth Summit.
    • Johannesburg Summit (2002): The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) focused on implementation and action plans.
    • Rio+20 Summit (2012): The UN Conference on Sustainable Development produced the outcome document “The Future We Want,” which initiated the process of developing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

  • 2013: Minamata Convention on Mercury

    • A global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury.
    • It addresses the entire life cycle of mercury, including controls and reductions across a range of products, processes, and industries where mercury is used, released, or emitted.
    • It includes provisions on mercury mining, export/import, safe storage, and waste management.

  • 2015: Paris Agreement

    • Adopted at COP21, it is a landmark agreement within the UNFCCC dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance.
    • Its central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
    • It operates on a “bottom-up” approach through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), where each country sets its own emission reduction targets.

Initiatives to Mitigate Climate Change

  • IPCC Assessment Reports (ARs):

    • The IPCC’s reports have been foundational in shaping global climate policy.
    • AR1 (1990): Provided the scientific basis that led to the creation of the UNFCCC.
    • AR4 (2007): Concluded that warming of the climate system is “unequivocal” and that most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is “very likely” due to the observed increase in anthropogenic GHG concentrations. The IPCC, along with Al Gore, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 for their efforts.
    • AR6 (2021-22): Termed a “code red for humanity” by the UN Secretary-General, it stated with even greater certainty that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean, and land.
    • Dr. Rajendra K. Pachauri, an Indian environmentalist, served as the Chair of the IPCC from 2002 to 2015, the longest tenure in its history.

  • UNFCCC and its COPs:

    • The UNFCCC Secretariat is headquartered in Bonn, Germany. It entered into force on 21 March 1994.
    • Annex I: Industrialized countries and economies in transition (EITs).
    • Annex II: A sub-group of Annex I countries (developed OECD members) who are obliged to provide financial resources to developing countries.
    • Non-Annex I: Mostly developing countries.
    • Least Developed Countries (LDCs): A sub-group of Non-Annex I countries given special consideration.
    • COP (Conference of the Parties): The supreme decision-making body of the Convention.

  • Kyoto Protocol (COP3, 1997) and its Mechanisms:

    • The protocol established binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing GHG emissions.
    • It introduced three market-based “Flexible Mechanisms” to help countries meet their targets cost-effectively:
      1. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Allows an Annex I country to implement an emission-reduction project in a non-Annex I country. These projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
      2. Joint Implementation (JI): Allows an Annex I country to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction project in another Annex I country.
      3. Emissions Trading (ET): Allows countries that have emission units to spare – emissions permitted them but not “used” – to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets.

  • From Copenhagen to Paris (COP15 - COP21):

    • COP15 (Copenhagen, 2009): Largely seen as a failure as it did not produce a legally binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol. However, it resulted in the Copenhagen Accord, which recognized the need to limit global temperature rise to 2°C and saw developed countries pledge climate finance.
    • COP16 (Cancun, 2010): Formalized the pledges made in Copenhagen and established the Green Climate Fund (GCF) to channel $100 billion per year by 2020 from developed to developing nations.
    • COP18 (Doha, 2012): Adopted the Doha Amendment, establishing a second commitment period for the Kyoto Protocol (2013-2020).

  • Paris Agreement (COP21, 2015) and beyond:

    • Global Stocktake (GST): A mechanism under Article 14 of the Paris Agreement to assess the collective progress towards achieving the purpose of the Agreement. The first GST concluded at COP28 in 2023. It is conducted every five years.
    • COP26 (Glasgow, 2021): Notable for the Glasgow Climate Pact, which explicitly mentioned the need to “phase-down unabated coal power and phase-out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies.” India announced its Panchamrit commitments and its net-zero target for 2070.
    • COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh, 2022): A historic achievement was the agreement to establish a Loss and Damage Fund to compensate vulnerable countries for the unavoidable impacts of climate change.
    • COP28 (Dubai, 2023): For the first time, the final text called on all nations to “transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems, in a just, orderly and equitable manner.” This was a significant step, signaling a global consensus on the future of fossil fuels.

Wildlife Section

  • Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)

    • Habitat: High-altitude, arid, and semi-arid mountainous regions across 12 countries in Central and South Asia. In India, its range includes Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Hemis National Park in Ladakh is renowned as the snow leopard capital of the world.
    • Adaptations: Its long, thick tail (80-105 cm) is used for balance and as a wrap for warmth. Wide, fur-covered paws distribute weight for walking on snow. A powerful chest and short forelimbs are adapted for steep, rugged terrain.
    • Conservation:
      • Project Snow Leopard (2009): A landscape-level conservation approach focusing on participatory policies and managing the human-wildlife conflict.
      • GSLEP (2013): An alliance of all 12 range countries, supported by international organizations. The goal is to secure at least 20 healthy snow leopard landscapes by 2020 (the ‘20 by 2020’ goal).
      • IUCN Status: Upgraded from ‘Endangered’ to ‘Vulnerable’ in 2017, reflecting the success of conservation efforts, though threats remain significant.

  • Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)

    • Habitat: Primarily found in dense tropical evergreen forests, from the foothills of the Himalayas through mainland Southeast Asia and into Southern China. In India, it is found in the Northeastern states, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
    • Characteristics: It has the largest canine teeth in proportion to its body size of any living feline. Its unique cloud-like coat pattern provides excellent camouflage. It is an arboreal specialist, with rotating rear ankles that allow it to climb down trees head-first.
    • Conservation: Protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. It is the state animal of Meghalaya.

  • Fishing Cat (Prionailurus viverrinus)

    • Habitat: A wetland specialist, found in marshes, mangroves (like the Sundarbans), and densely vegetated areas near rivers and streams.
    • Characteristics: It has partially webbed paws, which aid in swimming and capturing aquatic prey. It is primarily nocturnal.
    • Conservation: In 2012, the West Bengal government declared the Fishing Cat the State Animal. The Fishing Cat Project, launched in 2010, is a major conservation initiative working in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

  • Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus - Asiatic Elephant)

    • Ecological Role: As a keystone species and an ‘ecosystem engineer,’ elephants play a crucial role in maintaining forest ecosystems by dispersing seeds, creating water holes, and clearing vegetation.
    • Social Structure: They live in complex matriarchal societies where the oldest and most experienced female leads the herd.
    • Conservation:
      • Project Elephant (1992): A Centrally Sponsored Scheme to provide financial and technical support to states for the protection of elephants, their habitats, and corridors.
      • MIKE Programme: Mandated by a CITES resolution, it measures trends in the illegal killing of elephants to inform conservation policy. There are 10 MIKE sites in India.
      • Declared the National Heritage Animal of India in 2010.

  • One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

    • Habitat: Found in the tall grasslands and forests in the foothills of the Himalayas. Over 90% of its global population is concentrated in Assam, India, primarily in Kaziranga National Park, Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, and Manas National Park.
    • Conservation:
      • Indian Rhino Vision 2020 (IRV 2020): Launched in 2005, it was an ambitious program to attain a wild population of at least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos spread over seven protected areas in Assam by 2020. The target was successfully achieved. It involved translocating rhinos from densely populated areas like Kaziranga to other protected areas like Manas.

  • Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps)

    • Habitat: A flagship species of arid and semi-arid grasslands. Its largest populations are now found in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
    • Threats: The primary threats are habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and industrialization, and collision with high-tension power lines that crisscross their habitat.
    • Conservation:
      • Supreme Court Intervention: In 2021, the Supreme Court of India ordered that all overhead power lines in the GIB’s priority and potential habitats in Rajasthan and Gujarat be laid underground.
      • Project Great Indian Bustard: Launched by Rajasthan, it involves creating breeding enclosures and managing habitats.
      • It is listed in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in Appendix I of CITES.

Prelims Pointers

  • 1987: Brundtland Report, ‘Our Common Future’, defined Sustainable Development.
  • 1988: IPCC was established by UNEP and WMO.
  • 1989: Basel Convention deals with the transboundary movement of hazardous waste; it does not cover radioactive waste.
  • 1992: Rio Earth Summit led to the establishment of UNFCCC, UNCBD, and UNCCD.
  • 1997: Kyoto Protocol, adopted at COP3, set legally binding emission targets for Annex-I countries.
  • 1998: Rotterdam Convention is based on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure for hazardous chemicals trade. It is legally binding.
  • 2000: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is a supplement to the UNCBD, dealing with LMOs.
  • 2001: Stockholm Convention regulates Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). The initial list was called the ‘Dirty Dozen’.
  • 2013: Minamata Convention is a global treaty to control anthropogenic emissions of Mercury.
  • 2015: Paris Agreement (COP21) aims to keep global temperature rise well below 2°C, preferably 1.5°C.
  • IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007.
  • R.K. Pachauri was the longest-serving Chairperson of the IPCC.
  • Flexible Mechanisms of Kyoto Protocol: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation (JI), and Emissions Trading (ET).
  • Green Climate Fund (GCF): Established at COP16 (Cancun) to transfer funds from developed to developing nations.
  • Global Stocktake (GST): A 5-yearly review mechanism under the Paris Agreement to assess collective progress.
  • India’s Net-Zero Target Year: 2070 (announced at COP26, Glasgow).
  • Loss and Damage Fund: Agreed upon at COP27 (Sharm el-Sheikh).
  • Snow Leopard: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. Found in high-altitude Himalayas. Project Snow Leopard was launched in 2009.
  • Clouded Leopard: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. State animal of Meghalaya. Found in Northeast Indian forests.
  • Fishing Cat: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. State animal of West Bengal. A wetland specialist.
  • Asiatic Elephant: IUCN Status: Endangered. National Heritage Animal of India. Project Elephant was launched in 1992.
  • One-Horned Rhino: IUCN Status: Vulnerable. Mainly found in Assam (Kaziranga NP). Indian Rhino Vision 2020 was a conservation program.
  • Great Indian Bustard (GIB): IUCN Status: Critically Endangered. Endemic to the Indian subcontinent, found in grasslands. Protected under Schedule I of WPA, 1972.

Mains Insights

  1. Evolution of Global Environmental Governance:

    • The timeline of conventions reveals a shift from issue-specific concerns (like waste in Basel) to a more integrated approach (sustainable development at Rio).
    • There is a clear evolution in climate policy from a rigid, top-down, legally binding approach (Kyoto Protocol) to a flexible, bottom-up, nationally determined framework (Paris Agreement). This reflects the geopolitical and economic realities and the difficulty in enforcing strict targets on sovereign nations.
    • Debate: The effectiveness of non-binding pledges (Paris NDCs) versus binding targets (Kyoto) is a major point of discussion. While Paris achieved universal participation, its success hinges on the ambition and implementation of NDCs, which are currently insufficient to meet the 1.5°C goal.

  2. The North-South Divide and Climate Justice:

    • The principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) has been a cornerstone of environmental negotiations, acknowledging that developed countries have a greater historical responsibility for emissions.
    • This principle is evident in the structure of the Kyoto Protocol (binding targets only for Annex-I). The Paris Agreement applies to all parties but maintains differentiation in terms of capacity and responsibility.
    • Friction Points: Debates over climate finance (the $100 billion/year goal), technology transfer, and the new ‘Loss and Damage’ fund are manifestations of this North-South divide. Developing countries argue that they need financial and technical support to transition to green economies without compromising their development goals.

  3. Human-Wildlife Conflict: A Development Challenge:

    • The declining populations of species like the Elephant, GIB, and Snow Leopard are directly linked to human activities such as habitat fragmentation, infrastructure development (power lines for GIB), and agricultural expansion.
    • This creates a classic ‘Environment vs. Development’ dilemma. Conservation efforts like ‘Project Elephant’ focus on securing corridors, which often traverse human-dominated landscapes, leading to conflict.
    • Solutions: Effective conservation requires a multi-pronged strategy: strict legal protection (WPA, 1972), landscape-level planning (Project Snow Leopard), community involvement (eco-development committees), and technological solutions (underground power lines). Balancing the aspirations of a developing nation with the imperative of biodiversity conservation is a key governance challenge for India.

  4. Role of Science in Policy Making:

    • The IPCC’s role is a prime example of the science-policy interface. Its assessment reports provide the scientific foundation upon which the UNFCCC and its protocols are built.
    • The increasing certainty and alarming predictions in successive IPCC reports (from AR1 to AR6) have created political urgency and public pressure for stronger climate action.
    • However, there can be a disconnect. Despite clear scientific warnings, political and economic interests often delay or weaken policy implementation, as seen in the slow progress on phasing out fossil fuels.

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