GS Notes

8. Ethics Notes 02

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Elaborate Notes

Conceptualizing Empathy and Compassion

Empathy and compassion are often used interchangeably, but they represent distinct stages of emotional and cognitive response. Their understanding is crucial in both personal morality and public service.

  • The Spectrum of Response: Human reaction to another’s suffering can be visualized on a spectrum:
    • Antipathy: An active feeling of opposition, dislike, or hostility towards another person. It represents a negative engagement.
    • Apathy: A state of indifference or the suppression of emotion such as concern, excitement, motivation, or passion. From the Greek apatheia, it signifies a lack of feeling or interest. In an administrative context, apathy is a significant ethical failing.
    • Sympathy: Derived from Greek sympatheia (‘fellow feeling’), it is the perception, understanding, and reaction to the distress or need of another human being. It often involves a feeling of pity or sorrow for someone else’s misfortune but maintains an emotional distance.
    • Empathy: The capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing from within their frame of reference, i.e., the capacity to place oneself in another’s position. This concept was explored by psychologists like Carl Rogers (1959) in his client-centered therapy, emphasizing its importance in human connection. It is a cognitive and affective act of “imaginatively putting myself in the shoes of others.”
    • Compassion: This is the terminal and most evolved stage. It combines the feeling of empathy with a subsequent desire to act to alleviate the other’s suffering. The Buddhist concept of Karuna is central to its philosophy and represents this active form of empathy. Thus, the formula Compassion = Empathy + Action is an accurate representation.
  • Example in Public Service: The work of IAS officer Awanish Sharan in introducing ‘Sanjeevani Express’, a bike ambulance service in the tribal districts of Chhattisgarh, is a testament to compassion. He did not merely feel for the plight of tribals who could not access healthcare due to difficult terrain (empathy) but was moved to create a tangible solution to alleviate their pain (compassion).

The Debate: Absolute versus Relative Ethics

This is a foundational debate in moral philosophy concerning whether ethical principles are universal and unchanging or dependent on context.

  • Ethical Absolutism (Deontology): This view holds that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of their consequences. The morality of an action is inherent in the action itself.

    • Philosophical Roots: This is most famously articulated by Immanuel Kant (1785) in his Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. His concept of the Categorical Imperative states that one should “act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” For Kant, truth-telling is an absolute duty; lying is always wrong, irrespective of the outcome.
    • Core Tenet: “There cannot be the wrong way of doing the right things.” This emphasizes the purity of means. The actions of Robin Hood, for example, would be considered unethical from this perspective because stealing (the means) is intrinsically wrong, even if the intention (helping the poor) is noble. Similarly, jumping a traffic signal to save a life, while having a good outcome, violates a universal rule and is thus impermissible.
    • Criticism: The primary criticism is its rigidity. It fails to account for complex situations where duties conflict or where following a rule could lead to a disastrous outcome.

  • Ethical Relativism (Consequentialism/Situational Ethics): This view argues that the morality of an action is determined by its context, including its consequences. What is right or wrong depends on the situation, the culture, or the individual.

    • Philosophical Roots: Utilitarianism, developed by Jeremy Bentham (1789) and later refined by John Stuart Mill (1863), is a prominent form of consequentialism. It posits that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number.
    • The Importance of Intention and Context: The story of the sage who reveals the location of a fleeing man to his pursuers, resulting in the man’s death, illustrates the flaw in absolutism. While the sage upheld the absolute value of truth, his action led to harm. This highlights the view that understanding the intention behind an action and its likely consequences is crucial for judging its morality.
    • Buddhist Perspective: The statement attributed to Buddha, “Being kind is more important than being right,” encapsulates this sentiment. It prioritizes the virtue of kindness and the reduction of suffering over the rigid adherence to an abstract principle of ‘rightness’. This aligns with Virtue Ethics, which focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than rules or consequences.

Subjective versus Objective Values

This dichotomy explores whether values are created by human consciousness or exist independently of it.

  • Subjectivism: This position holds that values are not inherent properties of objects or actions but are instead judgments made by a subject. “Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder” is the classic expression of this. Values are personal preferences, and there are no external, universal standards to judge them.
  • Objectivism: This view contends that certain values exist independently of individual perception or belief. They are universal truths waiting to be discovered.
    • Platonic Idealism: Plato, in his theory of Forms, argued that concepts like Beauty, Justice, and Goodness are objective, eternal, and unchanging ‘Forms’ or ‘Ideas’. The physical world contains only imperfect reflections of these perfect Forms. For Plato, a beautiful object is beautiful because it participates in the universal Form of Beauty.
    • Universally Recognized Values: Proponents of objectivism point to values like wisdom, compassion, love, and courage, which are esteemed across diverse cultures and historical periods, suggesting they are not mere subjective preferences but have an objective basis in human flourishing. A key formulation here is Wisdom = Intelligence + Morality. Intelligence is the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge, but when guided by a moral compass, it transforms into wisdom. This is akin to Aristotle’s concept of Phronesis or practical wisdom.
  • Reconciliation: A nuanced view suggests that while core values may be objective, their manifestation can be subjective and culturally conditioned. For instance, ‘love’ might be a universal, objective value. However, its expression varies. The glorification of stalking in popular cinema as a legitimate form of romantic pursuit is an example of a distorted, subjective manifestation of the value of love, which can lead to harmful social consequences.

The Inter-relationship: Beliefs, Values, Morals, Ethics, and Attitude

These concepts form a hierarchy of guiding principles for human behaviour.

  1. Beliefs: These are convictions or ideas that an individual holds to be true, based on experience, faith, or reasoning. Long-lasting beliefs about what is preferable or desirable form the foundation of values.
  2. Values: As defined by sociologist Milton Rokeach (1973), a value is an “enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable.” Values are broad, abstract ideals (e.g., honesty, freedom, security). They act as a person’s general guide to behaviour. Values are primarily derived from one’s culture, family, and traditions, making them relatively enduring.
  3. Morals and Ethics: When values are judged through the prism of right and wrong, they become morals (at the individual level) and ethics (at the societal/professional level).
    • Morals (from Latin mores, meaning ‘custom’): These are an individual’s personal principles and standards of right and wrong. They are internal and subjective.
    • Ethics (from Greek ethos, meaning ‘character’): This refers to a framework or a set of rules of conduct, often prescribed by a social system, institution, or profession (e.g., Medical Ethics, Administrative Ethics). Ethics are external and tend to be more objective.
    • Interplay: Morals, when widely accepted and codified by a society, become ethics. Conversely, societal ethics, when internalized by an individual, become part of their personal morals.
  4. Attitude: An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object.
    • Value vs. Attitude: Values are general and abstract, whereas attitudes are specific and are always directed towards a particular object, person, or situation. A person may hold ‘respect’ as a value, but their attitude towards a specific individual or group may not be respectful. Attitudes are influenced by values but also by personal experiences, making them relatively less enduring and more susceptible to change than core values.

The Crisis of Conscience

  • Defining Conscience: Conscience is often described as an inner voice or faculty that guides our moral judgment. Theologically, it is seen as the voice of God. Psychologically, Sigmund Freud conceptualized it as part of the Superego, which internalizes societal and parental standards. A functional definition is an intuitive and authoritative judgment regarding the moral quality of one’s actions.
  • Nature of the Crisis: A crisis of conscience is a state of acute mental conflict arising when one is confronted with a situation that challenges one’s deeply held moral principles. This can occur when:
    1. One believes they have acted wrongly, leading to feelings of guilt, shame, and remorse.
    2. One faces a dilemma between two conflicting duties or values and is compelled to choose an option that violates their conscience.
  • Manifestations:
    • Literary/Historical Example: The moral turmoil of Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, as depicted in the Bhagavad Gita, is a classic example. He faced a conflict between his duty (dharma) as a warrior and his personal morality of not harming his kinsmen.
    • Professional Dilemmas: A doctor’s dilemma between prescribing cheaper generic medicines versus more profitable branded medicines; a civil servant’s conflict when ordered to use force against a peaceful protest.
    • Personal Life: The conflict between pursuing a passion for social service and the need to take up a lucrative career to support one’s family.
  • Resolution: Overcoming a crisis of conscience requires profound moral resources, primarily integrity (adherence to one’s principles), courage (the strength to act on those principles, even at a personal cost), and wisdom (the ability to discern the right course of action). The quote, often attributed to H.L. Mencken, “Conscience is the inner voice which warns us that someone may be looking,” humorously points to its social dimension, but its true power is internal—as a persistent, “barking” guide.

Norms as a Source of Ethics

  • Definition: Norms are the unwritten, informal rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. Sociologist William Graham Sumner (1906) categorized them into folkways (customs, like table manners) and mores (norms with strong moral significance, like prohibitions against murder). They function as “social expectations” that guide behaviour and ensure conformity.
  • Enforcement: Unlike laws, which are enforced by the state, norms are enforced through social mechanisms like praise, ridicule, gossip, social exclusion, or ostracization.
  • Evolution into Law: Norms represent a society’s evolving moral consensus. When a norm becomes critically important for social welfare and requires formal enforcement, it often transitions into a law. This is a key process of social and legal evolution.
  • Case Study: Bhanwari Devi: The case of Bhanwari Devi, a social worker in Rajasthan who was gang-raped in 1992 for campaigning against the norm of child marriage, is a powerful example. The public outrage and subsequent legal battle led to the landmark Vishaka Guidelines (1997) by the Supreme Court, which for the first time defined sexual harassment at the workplace and laid down preventive guidelines. This judicial intervention eventually culminated in the enactment of the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013. This trajectory shows the evolution from challenging a harmful social norm to the creation of formal law.

Prelims Pointers

  • Compassion: Defined as empathy combined with a desire for action to alleviate suffering.
  • Spectrum of Feelings:
    • Antipathy: Feeling of opposition or hostility.
    • Apathy: State of indifference or lack of emotion.
    • Sympathy: Feeling of pity or sorrow for another’s misfortune.
    • Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of another.
  • Ethical Absolutism: Also known as Deontology. Proposes that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of consequences.
    • Key Proponent: Immanuel Kant.
    • Core Concept: Categorical Imperative.
  • Ethical Relativism: Also known as Consequentialism. Proposes that the morality of an action is dependent on its context and consequences.
    • Key Proponents: Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill (Utilitarianism).
  • Objective Values: The view that values like ‘Beauty’ and ‘Goodness’ exist independently of human perception.
    • Associated Philosopher: Plato (Theory of Forms).
  • Wisdom: A combination of intelligence and morality (Wisdom = Intelligence + Morality).
  • Values: Enduring beliefs about what is desirable. They are general, abstract, and relatively stable.
  • Attitude: A learned predisposition to respond to a specific object, person, or situation. It is more specific than a value.
  • Morals: Individual, internal standards of right and wrong.
  • Ethics: External, societal, or professional frameworks of right and wrong.
  • Conscience: An intuitive and authoritative judgment on the moral quality of actions. A ‘crisis of conscience’ involves deep moral conflict.
  • Norms: Informal, unwritten societal rules of behaviour. Enforced through social pressure. Can evolve into laws.
  • Bhanwari Devi Case: This case led to the Supreme Court’s Vishaka Guidelines (1997) against sexual harassment at the workplace.
  • Gandhiji’s Seven Social Sins:
    1. Wealth without work.
    2. Pleasure without conscience.
    3. Knowledge without character.
    4. Commerce without morality.
    5. Science without humanity.
    6. Worship without sacrifice.
    7. Politics without principle.

Mains Insights

Deontology vs. Consequentialism in Public Administration

  • A fundamental dilemma for civil servants is the conflict between following rules (a deontological approach) and achieving desirable outcomes for the public (a consequentialist approach).
  • Case for Deontology (Rule-based Governance): Adhering strictly to rules ensures uniformity, predictability, and impartiality. It prevents arbitrariness and corruption. This is the foundation of the Weberian bureaucratic model. For example, denying a ration card to an ineligible person, even if they are poor, upholds the integrity of the PDS system.
  • Case for Consequentialism (Outcome-based Governance): In a developing country, rigid adherence to rules can sometimes lead to injustice and exclusion, defeating the very purpose of welfare schemes. A compassionate administration might need to use discretion to achieve the larger goal of public welfare. For instance, finding a way to provide immediate food aid to a starving person without a ration card while helping them get enrolled.
  • The Way Forward: A balanced approach is needed. Ethical governance requires administrators to be ‘rule-bound’ but not ‘rule-blind’. They must understand the spirit of the law and use discretion judiciously and transparently, always in the public interest.

The Role of Social Norms in Governance and Law-Making

  • Norms as a Challenge: Deep-seated social norms (e.g., patriarchal attitudes, caste prejudices, preference for early marriage of girls) can be major impediments to the effective implementation of progressive laws.
  • Norms as a Catalyst for Change: Conversely, social movements can challenge regressive norms and create momentum for legal reform. The anti-corruption movement leading to the Lokpal Act, or the movement for LGBTQ+ rights leading to the decriminalization of Section 377, are examples.
  • Policy Implication: For laws to be effective, they must be accompanied by efforts to change underlying social norms through social influence, education, and awareness campaigns (e.g., Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao).

Resolving the Crisis of Conscience in Civil Services

  • Civil servants often face situations where their personal conscience conflicts with official orders or political pressures.
  • Sources of Conflict: Orders to use excessive force, pressure to favour a particular contractor, or instructions to manipulate data.
  • Mechanisms for Resolution:
    1. Inner Resources: Relying on foundational values of integrity, courage, and impartiality.
    2. Seeking Guidance: Consulting with trusted senior officers.
    3. Formal Channels: Documenting dissent on file, using official channels to register objections.
    4. Legal Protections: Leveraging frameworks like the Whistle Blowers Protection Act, 2014, although its implementation remains a concern.
    5. Ultimate Recourse: In extreme cases where an order is illegal and immoral, refusal to comply or even resignation may be the only ethical options.

The Importance of Empathy and Compassion in Administration

  • Beyond Competence: Professional competence (knowledge of rules, efficiency) alone is insufficient for a good administrator. Empathy and compassion are essential for citizen-centric governance.
  • Benefits:
    • Improved Policy Formulation: An empathetic officer better understands the ground realities and needs of the people, especially the vulnerable, leading to more inclusive policies.
    • Enhanced Service Delivery: A compassionate approach ensures that services are delivered with dignity and sensitivity.
    • Increased Public Trust: Citizens are more likely to trust and cooperate with an administration that they perceive as caring and responsive.
  • Cultivating Empathy: Training modules for civil servants should include field visits, immersive experiences, and sessions on emotional intelligence to foster these crucial values.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

(Note: Direct questions on core ethical theories are not asked in GS Paper I. The following questions are thematically related from recent years, primarily touching upon the values enshrined in the Constitution and governance principles, which reflect ethical considerations.)

  1. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC Prelims 2021)

    1. Judicial custody means an accused is in the custody of the concerned magistrate and such accused is locked up in police station, not in jail.
    2. During judicial custody, the police officer in charge of the case is not allowed to interrogate the suspect without the approval of the court. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    Answer: (b) Explanation: This question relates to procedural ethics and the rule of law. Statement 1 is incorrect because in judicial custody, the accused is kept in jail, not a police station. Statement 2 is correct, reflecting the legal and ethical boundaries placed on state power to protect individual rights.

  2. Which one of the following best defines the term ‘State’? (UPSC Prelims 2021) (a) A community of persons permanently occupying a definite territory independent of external control and possessing an organized government. (b) A politically organized people of a definite territory and possessing an authority to govern them, maintain law and order, protect their natural rights and safeguard their means of sustenance. (c) A number of persons who have been living in a definite territory for a very long time with their own culture, tradition and government. (d) A society permanently living in a definite territory with a central authority, an executive responsible to the central authority and an independent judiciary.

    Answer: (a) Explanation: This question touches upon the foundational concepts of political ethics and structure. Option (a) provides the most precise and universally accepted definition of a ‘State’ in political science, encompassing the four essential elements: population, territory, government, and sovereignty.

  3. Constitutional government means (UPSC Prelims 2021) (a) a representative government of a nation with federal structure (b) a government whose Head enjoys nominal powers (c) a government whose Head enjoys real powers (d) a government limited by the terms of the Constitution

    Answer: (d) Explanation: This relates to the ethical principle of limited government and constitutionalism. A constitutional government is one where the powers of the government are defined and limited by a constitution, preventing arbitrariness and upholding the rule of law.

  4. ‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India? (UPSC Prelims 2021) (a) Article 15 (b) Article 19 (c) Article 21 (d) Article 29

    Answer: (c) Explanation: The Supreme Court in the K.S. Puttaswamy case (2017) affirmed that the Right to Privacy is a fundamental right, intrinsic to the Right to Life and Personal Liberty under Article 21. This reflects the evolving ethical norms of a society regarding individual autonomy and dignity being codified into law.

  5. A legislation which confers on the executive or administrative authority an unguided and uncontrolled discretionary power in the matter of application of law violates which one of the following Articles of the Constitution of India? (UPSC Prelims 2021) (a) Article 14 (b) Article 28 (c) Article 32 (d) Article 44

    Answer: (a) Explanation: This question addresses the core ethical principle of equality and non-arbitrariness in governance. Article 14 guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the laws. Granting unguided discretionary power is a violation of this principle as it can lead to arbitrary and discriminatory actions by the executive.

Mains

  1. What is meant by ‘crisis of conscience’? How does it manifest in the public domain? (UPSC Mains 2020, 150 words)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define ‘crisis of conscience’ as a state of severe mental and moral conflict that arises when an individual’s actions, or orders they are expected to follow, contradict their deeply held moral values and principles, leading to feelings of guilt and turmoil.
    • Manifestation in the Public Domain:
      • Policy Implementation: A civil servant may face a crisis of conscience when asked to implement a policy they believe is harmful to the public or a particular vulnerable group (e.g., forceful eviction of slum dwellers without adequate rehabilitation).
      • Following Unethical Orders: An official might be ordered by a political superior to act in a partisan manner, award a contract to an undeserving firm, or manipulate data, creating a conflict between duty and personal integrity.
      • Whistleblowing: The decision to become a whistleblower is a classic manifestation. The official’s conscience compels them to expose wrongdoing, despite the immense personal and professional risks involved.
      • Use of Force: A police officer ordered to use disproportionate force on peaceful protestors faces a conflict between obeying orders and their conscience’s prohibition against harming innocent people.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by stating that navigating such crises requires immense moral courage and is a true test of a public servant’s character. A robust ethical framework and institutional support systems are essential to help officials uphold their conscience.

  2. What do you understand by ‘probity’ in public service? What are the difficulties in practicing it in the present times? (UPSC Mains 2023, 150 words)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define probity as the quality of having strong moral principles, integrity, uprightness, and complete honesty. In public service, it signifies an unwavering adherence to ethical conduct and procedures, ensuring that decisions are free from corruption and self-interest.
    • Difficulties in Practicing Probity:
      • Political Pressure: Intense pressure from political executives to bend rules for partisan gains or to favour specific individuals/groups.
      • Systemic Corruption: A pervasive culture of corruption can create a hostile environment for honest officers, leading to their isolation, frequent transfers, or harassment.
      • Lack of Whistleblower Protection: Inadequate legal and institutional protection for those who expose wrongdoing discourages officials from reporting corruption.
      • Complex and Opaque Rules: Ambiguous laws and procedures can be exploited by vested interests, making it difficult for an honest officer to navigate the system without compromise.
      • Materialistic Societal Values: A societal culture that glorifies wealth over integrity can put pressure on public servants to engage in corrupt practices to meet social expectations.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by emphasizing that despite these challenges, practicing probity is non-negotiable for good governance and requires both individual character and systemic reforms like strengthening anti-corruption bodies and simplifying rules.

  3. Differentiate between ‘Code of Ethics’ and ‘Code of Conduct’ with suitable examples. (UPSC Mains 2019, 150 words)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Briefly state that both are tools to guide professional behaviour, but they operate at different levels of abstraction and purpose.
    • Differentiation in a Table or Points: | Feature | Code of Ethics | Code of Conduct | | :--- | :--- | :--- | | Nature | General and aspirational. | Specific and directive. | | Focus | On values, principles, and ideals. It guides decision-making. | On actions and behaviour. It lists what to do and what not to do. | | Scope | Broader, providing a moral compass (e.g., act with integrity). | Narrower, providing explicit rules (e.g., do not accept gifts above a certain value). | | Enforcement | Violation is harder to prove and may not have direct legal penalty but can harm reputation. | Violation is easily verifiable and often linked to specific disciplinary actions. | | Example | The Nolan Committee’s ‘Seven Principles of Public Life’ (Selflessness, Integrity, Objectivity etc.) is a code of ethics. | The Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964, which prohibits bigamy, speculation, or accepting lavish hospitality, is a code of conduct. |
    • Conclusion: Conclude that while a Code of Conduct ensures a minimum standard of behaviour, a Code of Ethics is essential for fostering a culture of discretionary judgment based on high moral principles, which is crucial for a dynamic and responsive public service.

  4. “An unexamined life is not worth living.” In the light of the statement, explain how self-awareness and self-examination are crucial for civil servants. (UPSC Mains 2023, 150 words)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Explain Socrates’ quote, emphasizing that a life devoid of introspection and self-assessment lacks true meaning and moral direction. Connect this to the immense responsibility wielded by civil servants.
    • Crucial Role of Self-Awareness for Civil Servants:
      • Identifying Biases: Self-examination helps an officer recognize their own inherent biases (caste, gender, religion, regionalism) and prevent them from clouding their professional judgment, ensuring objectivity.
      • Emotional Regulation: Self-awareness is the cornerstone of emotional intelligence. It allows an officer to manage their stress and emotions, especially in high-pressure situations, and maintain composure and rationality.
      • Aligning Actions with Values: Regular self-assessment helps a civil servant to check if their actions are consistent with the foundational values of the service like integrity, impartiality, and compassion. It helps in course-correction.
      • Resisting Unethical Pressures: An officer who understands their own moral compass and weaknesses is better equipped to identify and resist external pressures towards unethical conduct.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that for a civil servant, an examined life is not just a philosophical ideal but a professional necessity. It transforms them from a mere administrator into a reflective and ethical leader, thereby strengthening governance.

  5. What are the main components of Emotional Intelligence (EI)? Can they be learned? Discuss. (UPSC Mains 2020, 150 words)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define Emotional Intelligence as the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions to facilitate thinking and guide actions, as conceptualized by scholars like Daniel Goleman.
    • Main Components of EI (based on Goleman’s model):
      1. Self-Awareness: The ability to recognize and understand one’s own emotions, moods, and their effect on others.
      2. Self-Regulation: The ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods, and to think before acting.
      3. Motivation: A passion for work for reasons that go beyond money or status, and a propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistence.
      4. Empathy: The ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people and to treat them according to their emotional reactions.
      5. Social Skills: Proficiency in managing relationships, building networks, and an ability to find common ground and build rapport.
    • Can EI be Learned?
      • Argument for Learning: Yes, unlike IQ which is largely static, EI is a flexible set of skills that can be acquired and improved with practice.
      • Methods: Through dedicated training, self-reflection (journaling), seeking feedback from others, practicing mindfulness and meditation, and consciously observing and improving social interactions. For example, empathy can be developed through active listening and trying to see situations from others’ perspectives.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that since EI can be learned and developed, it is crucial to incorporate it into the training and continuous development programs for public servants to foster more effective and compassionate governance.

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