1.5 - Geography Notes 39

Elaborate Notes

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

A drainage system refers to the network of channels through which surface water, groundwater, and melted ice or snow are collected and transported to a larger water body, such as a river, lake, or ocean. The pattern of these channels is determined by the region’s topography, geology, and climate.

• River Basins and Watersheds:
  • A River Basin, also known as a catchment area, is the entire geographical area drained by a major river and its tributaries. It is a large-scale hydrological unit. The primary focus within a river basin is often on the quantity of water available (water budget), which is crucial for large-scale planning of irrigation, hydropower, and navigation. The Ganga Basin, for instance, is the largest in India, covering over a quarter of the country’s land area.
  • A Watershed is a smaller subdivision of a river basin. It is the land area that drains or ‘sheds’ water into a specific water body, such as a stream, river, lake, or wetland. The term is often used for micro-level planning and management. The focus here shifts to the quality of land and water. Watershed management, as pioneered by social reformers like Anna Hazare in Ralegan Siddhi (1975 onwards), involves practices like afforestation, contour bunding, and building check dams to prevent soil erosion, recharge groundwater, and combat land degradation. This approach forms the cornerstone of programs like the Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) in India.
  • Water Divide: This is an elevated topographical feature, such as a ridge or a mountain range, that separates adjacent drainage basins or watersheds. For example, the Western Ghats act as a major water divide in peninsular India, separating the west-flowing rivers (like Narmada, Tapi) that drain into the Arabian Sea from the east-flowing rivers (like Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) that drain into the Bay of Bengal. Similarly, the elevated land between the Indus and Ganga systems, near Ambala, acts as a water divide.

GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

The Ganga system is the largest river system in India in terms of its catchment area and cultural significance. It originates in the Himalayas and flows through the fertile Gangetic plains.

• Origin: The headstream of the Ganga is the Bhagirathi, which originates from the Gangotri Glacier at Gaumukh in Uttarakhand. The Alaknanda river, another major headstream, originates from the Satopanth Glacier. These two rivers merge at Devprayag, and from this confluence, the river is known as the Ganga. This is one of the Panch Prayag (five confluences) in Uttarakhand, the others being Vishnuprayag, Nandaprayag, Karnaprayag, and Rudraprayag.
• Course: The river flows through five states: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand (a small stretch in Sahibganj district), and West Bengal.
• Left-Bank Tributaries: These rivers originate primarily in the Himalayas.
  • Ramganga: Originates in the Pauri Garhwal district of Uttarakhand and joins the Ganga near Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh. It flows through the Jim Corbett National Park, which was established in 1936.
  • Gomti: A monsoon-fed river originating from Gomat Taal (Fulhaar Jheel) in Pilibhit, Uttar Pradesh. It is a unique Himalayan tributary as its source is not in the mountains. The city of Lucknow is situated on its banks. It joins the Ganga near Ghazipur, UP.
  • Ghaghara: An antecedent river (a river that has maintained its course despite tectonic uplift) originating from the Mapchachungo Glacier near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet. It is known as Karnali in Nepal. In India, it joins the Ganga at Chhapra in Bihar. The city of Ayodhya is located on its banks, where it is known as the Saryu River. Its major tributaries are the Sarda (also known as Kali or Mahakali, which forms the India-Nepal border) and the Rapti.
  • Gandak: Another antecedent river, it originates near the Nepal-Tibet border and enters India in the Champaran district of Bihar. It is also known as the Narayani River in Nepal. It joins the Ganga at Sonpur, near Patna.
  • Burhi Gandak: Originates from the Someshwar Hills in the West Champaran district and runs parallel to the Gandak before joining the Ganga near Munger.
  • Kosi: Known as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’ due to its frequent and devastating floods caused by the heavy silt it carries from the Himalayas. It is an antecedent river system comprising seven streams, hence also called Saptakoshi in Nepal. It joins the Ganga near Kursela in Bihar.
  • Mahananda: The easternmost tributary of the Ganga, it originates in the Darjeeling hills of West Bengal and joins the Ganga in Bangladesh.
• Right-Bank Tributaries: These primarily originate in the peninsular plateau.
  • Yamuna: The longest tributary of the Ganga. It originates from the Yamunotri Glacier on the Banderpoonch Peak in Uttarakhand. It flows through Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh, before merging with the Ganga at Prayagraj (Allahabad). Its main tributaries flow from the south:
    • Chambal: Originates from the Janapav Hills of the Vindhya Range in Madhya Pradesh. It is known for its badland topography. The Banas river, originating in the Aravalli Range, is its key tributary.
    • Sindh, Betwa, Ken: These rivers originate in the Malwa Plateau and flow northwards to join the Yamuna. The Ken-Betwa River Interlinking Project aims to transfer surplus water from the Ken basin to the water-deficit Betwa basin to aid the Bundelkhand region. The project involves the construction of the Daudhan Dam, which has raised environmental concerns as it will submerge a significant portion of the Panna Tiger Reserve.
  • Son: A major southern tributary originating from the Amarkantak Plateau in Madhya Pradesh, near the source of the Narmada. It flows parallel to the Kaimur Hills and joins the Ganga at Patna (ancient Pataliputra).
• Distributary:
  • The Farakka Barrage in West Bengal was constructed in 1975 to divert water from the Ganga into the Hooghly for flushing out sediment from the Kolkata Port. Just before the India-Bangladesh border, the Ganga bifurcates.
  • The main branch enters Bangladesh as the Padma.
  • The branch that diverts southwards is called the Hooghly. It is a distributary of the Ganga. The city of Kolkata is located on its banks. Its main tributaries are the Ajay and Damodar.
  • The Damodar River was historically known as the ‘Sorrow of Bengal’. The Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), established in 1948 and modelled on the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) of the USA, has constructed several dams to control floods and generate hydroelectricity.

BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM

This is a major transboundary river system flowing through Tibet, India, and Bangladesh. It is characterized by a large volume of water and heavy silt deposition.

• Origin: It originates from the Chemayungdung Glacier near the Kailash Range. The Angsi Glacier is also cited as a source.
• Names and Course:
  • In Tibet, it is known as Yarlung Tsangpo (meaning ‘The Purifier’).
  • It enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a deep gorge near Namcha Barwa, where it is called Siang.
  • In the plains, it is known as Dihang.
  • After being joined by its left-bank tributaries, Dibang and Lohit, near Sadiya in Assam, it is called the Brahmaputra.
  • In Bangladesh, it is known as the Jamuna.
  • The Jamuna merges with the Ganga (known as Padma in Bangladesh).
  • The combined stream, Padma, joins the Meghna (which is the name for the Barak River in Bangladesh) and flows into the Bay of Bengal as the Meghna, forming the world’s largest delta, the Sundarbans.
• Right-Bank Tributaries:
  • Subansiri: An antecedent river that joins the Brahmaputra in Assam. The Brahmaputra forms Majuli Island, India’s largest riverine island (and the first island district), just downstream of the Subansiri confluence.
  • Kameng: Originates in Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known as Kameng. In Assam, it is called Jia Bhoreli. The Pakhui (Pakke) Tiger Reserve and Orang National Park are located on its banks.
  • Manas: A major transboundary river flowing from Bhutan into Assam. It flows through the Manas National Park, which is a Tiger Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and a Biosphere Reserve.
  • Sankosh: Another transboundary river from Bhutan that joins the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh.
  • Teesta: Originates from the Zemu Glacier in Sikkim. It was a tributary of the Ganga before a major flood in 1787 changed its course to join the Brahmaputra (Jamuna) in Bangladesh.
• Left-Bank Tributaries:
  • Dibang and Lohit: These join the main river at Sadiya, Assam. The Bhupen Hazarika Bridge (Dhola-Sadiya Bridge), India’s longest bridge over water, is built across the Lohit River.
  • Dhansiri: Flows through Nagaland and Assam.
  • Kopili: A major tributary in Assam.
  • Barak: Originates in the Manipur Hills. In Bangladesh, it splits into two branches, the Surma and the Kushiyara, which later rejoin to form the Meghna River.

PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM

These rivers are generally older than the Himalayan rivers and are characterized by fixed courses and the absence of meanders. They are mostly rain-fed.

• East-Flowing Rivers:

  • Subarnarekha: Flows through Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha. It is known for placer deposits of gold in its riverbed, from which it derives its name (‘Streak of Gold’).
  • Baitarani and Brahmani: Major rivers of Odisha. Their delta region, along with the Mahanadi delta, hosts the Bhitarkanika Mangroves, a National Park and Ramsar site known for its rich biodiversity, including saltwater crocodiles. Nearby is Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary, the world’s largest nesting site for Olive Ridley sea turtles.
  • Mahanadi: Originates in the Dandakaranya region of Chhattisgarh. It was known as the ‘Sorrow of Odisha’. The Hirakud Dam, one of the longest earthen dams in the world, was built on it in 1957 to control floods and for irrigation. Its main tributaries are Ib, Mand, Hasdeo, Ong, Jonk, and Telen.
  • Vamsadhara: An important east-flowing river between Mahanadi and Godavari. It is a subject of an inter-state water dispute between Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Godavari: The largest peninsular river, also known as ‘Dakshin Ganga’. It originates from Trimbakeshwar near Nashik in Maharashtra. It flows through Maharashtra, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
    • Left-Bank Tributaries: Pranhita (formed by the confluence of Penganga, Wainganga, and Wardha), Indravati (on which the Chitrakote Falls, known as the ‘Niagara of India’, is located), and Sabari.
    • Right-Bank Tributary: Manjira.
  • Krishna: The second-largest east-flowing peninsular river. It originates at Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra. It flows through Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
    • Left-Bank Tributaries: Bhima (its basin is known for uranium deposits) and Musi (Hyderabad is on its banks).
    • Right-Bank Tributaries: Koyna (known for the 1967 Koyna earthquake, an example of reservoir-induced seismicity), Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, and Tungabhadra (formed by the Tunga and Bhadra rivers; the historic city of Hampi, the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, is on its banks).
  • The fertile deltaic region between Krishna and Godavari contains Kolleru Lake, a large freshwater lake. The doab between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers is known as the Raichur Doab, a historically contested region.
  • Pennar (Pennuru) and Palar: Both originate from the Nandi Hills in Karnataka. The spectacular Gandikota canyon is located on the Pennar River in Andhra Pradesh.
  • Kaveri (Cauvery): It originates at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri Hills of Coorg, Karnataka. It flows through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, with its basin also covering parts of Kerala and Puducherry. It is a perennial river as it receives rainfall from the Southwest Monsoon in its upper catchment (Karnataka) and the Northeast Monsoon in its lower catchment (Tamil Nadu). The Krishnaraja Sagara Dam in Karnataka, designed by Sir M. Visvesvaraya in 1924, is central to the long-standing Kaveri water dispute. The river has supported agriculture for centuries, notably during the Chola Empire, which built remarkable irrigation works like the Grand Anicut (Kallanai), one of the oldest water-regulation structures in the world.
    • Left-Bank Tributaries: Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavathi.
    • Right-Bank Tributaries: Kabini, Bhavani, Amaravati.
  • Vaigai: Originates in the Varushanad Hills of the Western Ghats. The ancient city of Madurai is situated on its banks. It drains into the Palk Strait.

• West-Flowing Rivers:

  • Luni: An inland drainage river that originates in the Pushkar Valley of the Aravalli Range. It is ephemeral and saline in its lower course and disappears into the marshes of the Rann of Kutch.
  • Sabarmati: Originates in the Aravalli Range of Rajasthan and drains into the Gulf of Khambhat.
  • Mahi: Originates in the Vindhya Range in Madhya Pradesh. It is notable for crossing the Tropic of Cancer twice. It also drains into the Gulf of Khambhat.
  • Narmada: Originates from the Amarkantak Plateau and flows westwards through a rift valley between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. It forms the Dhuandhar Falls near Jabalpur. It exhibits a trellis drainage pattern as its tributaries join it at approximately right angles. It drains into the Gulf of Khambhat.
  • Tapi (Tapti): Originates in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh (Satpura Range) and flows parallel to the Narmada through a rift valley. It also drains into the Gulf of Khambhat.
  • Mandovi/Mahadayi: Known as Mahadayi in Karnataka (its origin) and Mandovi in Goa. It is a lifeline for Goa.
  • Sharavati: Originates in Karnataka and is famous for creating the Jog (Gersoppa) Falls, one of India’s highest waterfalls.
  • Periyar: The longest river in Kerala. The Mullaperiyar Dam, located in Kerala but operated by Tamil Nadu, is a source of inter-state dispute.
  • Pamba: Rises in the Western Ghats and flows through Kerala. It is associated with the Sabarimala Temple.

CLIMATE OF INDIA

India’s climate is broadly described as a ‘Tropical Monsoon’ type, but its large size and diverse topography lead to significant regional variations. Key factors influencing the climate are:

• Latitudinal Extent: The Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) passes through the middle of the country, dividing it into a tropical zone to the south and a sub-tropical zone to the north. The large latitudinal spread (nearly 30 degrees) results in significant temperature variations between the north and south.
• Location: The peninsular shape, surrounded by the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Bay of Bengal, provides a long coastline, leading to a moderating maritime influence (low diurnal and annual range of temperature) in coastal areas.
• Presence of the Himalayas: This massive mountain range acts as a climatic divide.
  1. It blocks the frigid, dry winds from Central Asia during winter, protecting North India from severe cold.
  2. It acts as a barrier for the Southwest Monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture over the Indian subcontinent.
• Other Topographical Features:
  • Western Ghats: Being oriented perpendicular to the Southwest Monsoon winds, they cause heavy orographic rainfall on their windward (western) side and create a rain shadow region on their leeward (eastern) side.
  • Aravalli Range: Its orientation is parallel to the Arabian Sea branch of the Southwest Monsoon, so it does not act as a barrier, contributing to the aridity of Rajasthan.
• Monsoon Winds: This is the most dominant factor. The seasonal reversal of winds (Southwest in summer, Northeast in winter) dictates the rhythm of seasons and the distribution of rainfall across the country, making the Indian economy, especially agriculture, heavily dependent on it.
• Jet Streams: These are high-altitude, fast-flowing winds.
  • Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream: Prevails over northern India during winter, influencing the arrival of Western Disturbances, which bring rainfall to the northwestern plains and snowfall to the Himalayas.
  • Tropical Easterly Jet Stream: Develops during the summer over peninsular India and is associated with the onset and intensity of the Southwest Monsoon.
  • Somali Jet Stream: A low-level jet stream over the Indian Ocean that also plays a crucial role in driving the monsoon.
• Cyclones: Tropical cyclones originating in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea significantly affect the weather of the coastal regions, particularly in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, often causing widespread destruction but also bringing substantial rainfall.
• Global Phenomena:
  • El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): El Niño (warming of the Eastern Pacific) is often associated with weaker monsoons and drought conditions in India, while La Niña (cooling of the Eastern Pacific) is linked to stronger monsoons.
  • Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): Temperature difference between the western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean. A positive IOD generally aids the Indian monsoon.
  • Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO): An eastward-moving pulse of clouds and rainfall near the equator that can influence monsoon activity.

MONSOON

• Definition: The term ‘Monsoon’ is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’, meaning ‘season’. It refers to a seasonal reversal in wind direction, accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation.
• Classical Theory of Origin: This theory, first proposed by Edmund Halley in 1686, explains the monsoon as a large-scale land and sea breeze phenomenon.
  • Summer: The intense heating of the Indian subcontinent, particularly the Tibetan Plateau, creates a strong low-pressure area. In contrast, the surrounding oceans (Indian Ocean) are cooler and have relatively high pressure. This pressure differential causes moisture-laden winds (Southwest Monsoon) to blow from the sea to the land, bringing widespread rain.
  • Winter: The situation reverses. The landmass cools down rapidly, creating a high-pressure zone, while the oceans remain warmer (low pressure). This causes dry and cold winds (Northeast Monsoon) to blow from the land to the sea. This theory provides a basic understanding but is considered overly simplistic as it fails to explain the complex dynamics, including the role of the upper atmosphere, jet streams, and global teleconnections.

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Prelims Pointers

• Confluences (Panch Prayag): Bhagirathi and Alaknanda meet at Devprayag to form the Ganga.
• Ganga Course: Flows through 5 states: Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal.
• Ganga Left-Bank Tributaries: Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Kosi, Mahananda.
• Ganga Right-Bank Tributaries: Yamuna, Son.
• Yamuna Origin: Yamunotri glacier, Banderpoonch peak.
• Yamuna Tributaries (Right-bank only): Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken.
• Ghaghara River: Known as Saryu in Ayodhya. Originates near Mansarovar.
• Kosi River: Called the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’. Also known as Sapta Kosi.
• Damodar River: Previously ‘Sorrow of Bengal’. Modelled on the TVA (USA).
• Farakka Barrage: Diverts Ganga water into the Hooghly distributary.
• Brahmaputra Names: Yarlung Tsangpo (Tibet), Siang/Dihang (Arunachal), Brahmaputra (Assam), Jamuna (Bangladesh), Padma (after merging with Ganga), Meghna (final outflow).
• Brahmaputra Origin: Chemayungdung Glacier / Angsi Glacier.
• Majuli Island: India’s largest riverine island, located on the Brahmaputra in Assam.
• Bhupen Hazarika Bridge: India’s longest bridge, over the Lohit river (Brahmaputra tributary).
• Godavari River: Longest peninsular river. Also called ‘Dakshin Ganga’. Origin: Trimbakeshwar.
• Krishna River: Second longest peninsular river. Origin: Mahabaleshwar.
• Raichur Doab: Land between Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
• Kolleru Lake: Located between the deltas of Godavari and Krishna.
• Kaveri River Origin: Talakaveri, Brahmagiri Hills, Karnataka.
• Krishnaraja Sagara Dam: On Kaveri river in Karnataka.
• West-Flowing Peninsular Rivers: Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati, Mahi, Luni, Mandovi, Sharavati, Periyar.
• Rivers in Rift Valleys: Narmada and Tapi.
• River Crossing Tropic of Cancer Twice: Mahi River.
• Jog Falls: On Sharavati river in Karnataka.
• Chitrakote Falls: ‘Niagara of India’, on the Indravati river (Godavari tributary).
• Gandikota Canyon: On the Pennar river in Andhra Pradesh.
• Bhitarkanika Mangroves: Delta of Brahmani and Baitarani rivers in Odisha.
• Gahirmatha Beach: World’s largest nesting site for Olive Ridley turtles, in Odisha.
• Ken-Betwa Link: Involves submergence of parts of Panna Tiger Reserve.
• Classical Monsoon Theory: Proposed by Edmund Halley (1686). Based on differential heating of land and sea.

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Mains Insights

GS Paper I (Geography, History & Culture)

1. River Systems as a Geocultural and Historical Axis:

   • Civilizational Cradles: The Gangetic plains, watered by the Ganga and Yamuna, were the heartland of major ancient Indian empires like the Mauryas and Guptas. Cities like Pataliputra (Patna, at the confluence of Son and Ganga) and Varanasi flourished on river banks. Similarly, the Kaveri delta was the nucleus of the Chola Empire, which mastered hydraulic engineering.
   • Cultural & Religious Significance: Rivers are revered as deities in India (e.g., Ganga Maiya). Major pilgrimage sites (e.g., Prayagraj, Haridwar, Varanasi on the Ganga; Sabarimala near the Pamba) and festivals (Kumbh Mela) are intrinsically linked to rivers, shaping the cultural fabric of the nation.
   • Dichotomy of River Systems: The contrast between the perennial, antecedent Himalayan rivers and the seasonal, super-imposed Peninsular rivers has shaped distinct agricultural patterns, settlement histories, and economic activities. Himalayan rivers cause floods but also deposit fertile alluvium, while Peninsular rivers, flowing through hard rock terrain, have been harnessed for hydropower and tank irrigation for centuries.

2. Impact of Physiography on Climate and Human Life:

   • The Himalayan Bulwark: The Himalayas are not just a mountain range but a fundamental climate controller for the entire subcontinent. Analyze its dual role: protecting from cold Siberian winds and intercepting monsoons. This has created the unique agro-climatic zones that support India’s vast population.
   • Monsoon as the ‘Real Finance Minister’: The dominance of monsoon winds makes the Indian economy, especially agriculture, a ‘gamble on the monsoons’. Discuss the socio-economic implications of a delayed, deficient, or excessive monsoon, linking it to agricultural output, inflation, rural distress, and policy responses like crop insurance (PMFBY).

GS Paper II (Polity, Governance & International Relations)

1. Inter-State River Water Disputes:

   • Cause-Effect Analysis: The disputes (e.g., Kaveri, Vamsadhara, Mullaperiyar) arise from competing demands for water for agriculture, industry, and domestic use, exacerbated by climate change and inefficient water management. This leads to political friction, regionalism, and judicial activism.
   • Constitutional and Institutional Framework: Critically evaluate the efficacy of Article 262 of the Constitution and the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956. Discuss why tribunals have often been slow and their awards difficult to implement, leading to the need for a more permanent, robust dispute resolution mechanism. The Inter-State River Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2019, is a relevant point of discussion.

2. Hydro-diplomacy and Transboundary Rivers:

   • Upper vs. Lower Riparian States: India’s position changes with geography. It is an upper riparian state for rivers flowing into Bangladesh (Ganga, Teesta, Brahmaputra) and Pakistan (Indus system), but a lower riparian state for the Brahmaputra (Yarlung Tsangpo) originating in China.
   • Strategic Implications: China’s dam-building activities on the Brahmaputra raise concerns in India regarding water security, environmental impact, and potential for geopolitical leverage. Similarly, water-sharing with Bangladesh (Ganga Water Treaty, 1996; pending Teesta agreement) is a crucial aspect of the ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy. Effective hydro-diplomacy is essential for regional stability.

GS Paper III (Economy, Environment & Disaster Management)

1. River-Linking Projects: A Double-Edged Sword:

   • Economic Rationale: The National River Linking Project, including the Ken-Betwa link, is envisioned to address the spatial and temporal variation in water availability, mitigating floods and droughts, and boosting irrigation and inland navigation.
   • Environmental and Social Costs: Critically analyze the ecological consequences, such as submergence of forests and wildlife habitats (Panna Tiger Reserve), impact on aquatic ecosystems, and displacement of communities. The debate revolves around balancing developmental needs with environmental sustainability.

2. Watershed Management as a Tool for Sustainable Development:

   • From Engineering to Community-Based Solutions: The shift from large dams (like DVC, Hirakud) to micro-watershed management reflects a paradigm shift towards decentralized, sustainable water conservation. It integrates land, water, and biomass management to improve livelihoods, enhance agricultural productivity, and build climate resilience at the local level.
   • Challenges: Effective implementation of watershed projects requires strong community participation, technical expertise, and convergence of various government schemes (like MGNREGA), which remains a significant governance challenge.

3. Disaster Management - Floods:

   • Changing Flood Patterns: The ‘Sorrow of Bihar’ (Kosi) and ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ (Damodar) highlight the historical challenge of riverine floods. Analyze how this challenge is being compounded by climate change (more intense rainfall events), unplanned urbanization in floodplains, and deforestation in catchment areas.
   • Integrated Flood Management: Discuss the need to move from a post-disaster relief-centric approach to a holistic strategy involving both structural measures (embankments, dams) and non-structural measures (floodplain zoning, early warning systems, ecosystem restoration in catchments).