1.5 - Geography Notes 42

Elaborate Notes

Initiatives for the fishing sector in India

Blue Revolution

The Blue Revolution in India refers to the period of remarkable growth in the aquaculture and fisheries sector. The initiative was conceptualized to harness the potential of India’s vast water resources for fisheries development, aiming to increase fish production, improve the socio-economic conditions of the fishing community, and ensure food and nutritional security.

• Launch and Timeline: The genesis of the Blue Revolution can be traced back to the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-1979), which recognized the potential of aquaculture. However, it gained significant momentum during the Sixth (1980-1985) and Seventh (1985-1990) Five-Year Plans. This period marked a shift from traditional, capture-based fisheries towards a more organized, culture-based system, especially in the inland sector.

• Phase I (1980s - early 1990s): This initial phase focused primarily on the development of inland fisheries, particularly freshwater aquaculture.

  • Fish Farmers Development Agency (FFDA): Established as a centrally sponsored scheme, the FFDA became the nodal agency at the district level. Its primary mandate was to popularize and promote scientific fish farming by providing a package of technical, financial, and extension support to fish farmers. The first FFDA was established in 1973-74, and their network expanded significantly throughout the 1980s.
  • Fish Seed Development Program (FSDP): A critical bottleneck in aquaculture was the availability of quality fish seed. The FSDP was initiated to address this by establishing modern fish seed hatcheries across the country to ensure a steady supply of commercially important carp species like Catla, Rohu, and Mrigal.

• Phase II (early 1990s - mid-2000s): The focus of the revolution expanded to include marine and brackishwater fisheries alongside the continued development of inland fisheries.

  • Expansion of FFDA: The success of the FFDA model led to the establishment of more centers, covering almost all potential districts in the country.
  • Coastal Emphasis: This phase witnessed a boom in brackishwater aquaculture, particularly shrimp farming, along the coastal regions of states like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. This was driven by high export demand.
  • National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB): Established in 2006 (headquartered in Hyderabad), the NFDB was created as an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Agriculture (now under the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying) to coordinate and upscale fisheries development in India in a holistic manner.

• Modern Initiatives (Blue Revolution 2.0):

  • National Policy on Marine Fisheries, 2017: This policy replaced the earlier 2004 policy. It is built on seven pillars, including sustainable and responsible fishing, science-based management, welfare of fishers, and robust monitoring and control. It aims to balance ecological conservation with the livelihood needs of fishing communities.
  • Mission Neel Kranti (2016): Officially launched as the “Blue Revolution: Integrated Development and Management of Fisheries,” this mission provided a focused roadmap for the sector. Its key objectives were:
    • To fully tap the country’s fisheries potential, both in inland and marine sectors.
    • To nearly triple fish production to 15 million metric tons by 2020.
    • To double the income of fishers and fish farmers.
    • To triple export earnings.
  • Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY): Launched in 2020, this is the most significant government scheme for the fisheries sector to date. It aims to bring about a “Blue Revolution through sustainable and responsible development” and subsumes the objectives of earlier schemes. It focuses on addressing critical gaps in the value chain, from production and productivity to post-harvest infrastructure and marketing.

Distribution of Water in India

The availability and distribution of water in India are marked by significant spatial and temporal variations, leading to a complex water resource management challenge.

• Uneven Riverine Distribution: There is a stark contrast between the Himalayan and Peninsular river systems.

  • Himalayan Rivers (e.g., Ganga, Brahmaputra, Indus) are perennial as they are fed by both glacial melt and monsoon rains. They account for nearly 60% of India’s total river flow, despite draining only about one-third of the country’s area.
  • Peninsular Rivers (e.g., Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery) are largely rain-fed and seasonal, with significant flow variations between the monsoon and dry seasons. This leads to water scarcity in their basins during non-monsoon months.

• Uneven Precipitation: India’s climate is dominated by the Southwest Monsoon, which delivers about 80-90% of the annual precipitation within a short four-month period (June-September). This temporal concentration results in floods during the monsoon and water shortages for the rest of the year. Spatial variation is also extreme, with Mawsynram in Meghalaya receiving over 11,000 mm annually, while parts of Rajasthan receive less than 150 mm.

• Rain-shadow Regions: The orographic effect of the Western Ghats creates a pronounced rain-shadow region on its leeward side, encompassing large parts of central Maharashtra (Marathwada), interior Karnataka, and western Tamil Nadu, making them chronically drought-prone.

• Pollution of Water Bodies: Discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage from urban centers and industrial effluents into rivers has rendered many river stretches unfit for use. According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), a large number of river stretches in India are critically polluted. Agricultural runoff containing pesticides and fertilizers further exacerbates the problem through eutrophication.

• Water-Intensive Agriculture: The Green Revolution, while ensuring food security, promoted a cropping pattern that is not aligned with the regional water availability. The cultivation of water-guzzling crops like paddy and sugarcane in water-scarce states like Punjab, Haryana, and Maharashtra is a prime example.

• Government Policies: Policies such as the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for wheat and paddy and highly subsidized or free electricity for agriculture have incentivized farmers to cultivate these water-intensive crops and excessively extract groundwater using electric tube wells.

• Excessive Groundwater Extraction: India is the largest user of groundwater in the world, extracting more than the US and China combined. The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) reports that a significant percentage of assessment units (blocks/mandals/taluks) are categorized as ‘Over-exploited’. This leads to falling water tables, land subsidence, and increased pumping costs.

• Encroachment of Wetlands and Water Bodies: Wetlands, ponds, and lakes act as natural sponges that absorb rainwater and recharge groundwater. Rapid and unplanned urbanization has led to their widespread encroachment, destroying their ecological function and aggravating urban flooding and water scarcity.

• Deforestation: Forests play a crucial role in the hydrological cycle by inducing precipitation, promoting infiltration, and regulating surface runoff. Deforestation, particularly in catchment areas, leads to increased soil erosion, higher runoff, reduced groundwater recharge, and altered rainfall patterns.

The Extent of Water Stress in India

Water stress is a measure of the pressure on water resources and is a critical indicator of a region’s water security.

• Falkenmark Index: Developed by Swedish hydrologist Malin Falkenmark in 1989, this is a widely used indicator to measure water scarcity. It defines scarcity based on the per capita availability of renewable freshwater resources per year.
  • Water Stress: Annual per capita availability drops below 1700 cubic meters (m³).
  • Water Scarcity: Annual per capita availability drops below 1000 m³.
  • Absolute Scarcity: Annual per capita availability drops below 500 m³.
  • India’s Status: According to government data, India’s per capita water availability was estimated at 1,486 m³ in 2021, placing it firmly in the ‘water-stressed’ category. This is projected to decline further due to population growth and climate change.

Regional Analysis of Water Stress:

• North Region (Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Western UP): This region exhibits very high to extreme water stress.

  • Reasons: Legacy of the Green Revolution with intensive cultivation of paddy and wheat; high population density; significant industrial water demand and pollution (e.g., in the Yamuna river); and among the highest rates of groundwater extraction in the country.

• Western Region (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra): Characterized by high water stress.

  • Reasons: Predominantly arid and semi-arid climate with low and erratic rainfall; cultivation of water-intensive cash crops like sugarcane in drought-prone areas like Marathwada; high rates of soil erosion in some parts, reducing water retention capacity.

• Eastern Region (Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha): Faces a mix of issues, including growing water stress.

  • Reasons: High population density putting pressure on resources; extensive groundwater extraction for agriculture, especially in the Indo-Gangetic plains, leading to arsenic contamination in parts of West Bengal and Bihar; mining activities in Jharkhand and Odisha contaminate and disrupt surface and groundwater sources; industrial pollution is a significant concern.

• Southern Region (Peninsular India): Many parts experience high water stress.

  • Reasons: The rain-shadow effect of the Western Ghats; seasonal, non-perennial rivers; hard rock geology of the Deccan Plateau which limits groundwater infiltration and storage; presence of large, rapidly growing urban centers like Bengaluru, Chennai, and Hyderabad that have high water demand and have faced acute water crises (e.g., Chennai’s “Day Zero” situation in 2019).

• North-East Region: This is the only region in India that is largely water-abundant and not considered water-stressed.

  • Reasons: It receives very high rainfall from the monsoon; the Brahmaputra and its tributaries carry enormous volumes of water; lower population density compared to other regions; extensive forest cover helps in water retention and recharge.

How to deal with water stress?

Addressing India’s water stress requires a multi-pronged strategy that shifts from a supply-centric to a demand-management approach.

• Water-Efficient Agriculture: Since agriculture consumes over 80% of India’s water, this is the most critical area for intervention.

  • Crop Diversification: Encourage farmers to shift from water-intensive crops (paddy, sugarcane) to less water-intensive and drought-resistant crops like millets (now promoted as ‘Shree Anna’), pulses, and oilseeds.
  • Indigenous Varieties: Promote the use of traditional and indigenous seed varieties that are better adapted to local climatic and soil conditions and often require less water.
  • Micro-Irrigation: Promote and subsidize the adoption of drip and sprinkler irrigation, which can improve water use efficiency by 30-70% compared to conventional flood irrigation. The ‘Per Drop More Crop’ component of the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) is a key government initiative in this direction.

• Reforestation and Afforestation: Implement large-scale afforestation programs, especially in the catchment areas of rivers, to enhance groundwater recharge, reduce soil erosion, and improve the health of watersheds. The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) funds are meant to be utilized for this purpose.

• The 3Rs Principle (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle):

  • Reduce: Promote water conservation at the domestic and industrial levels through efficient fixtures, regular audits to fix leakages, and raising public awareness.
  • Reuse: Encourage the treatment and reuse of greywater (from kitchens and bathrooms) for non-potable purposes like gardening and toilet flushing.
  • Recycle: Invest in Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) and Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) to treat municipal and industrial wastewater to a standard where it can be recycled for industrial cooling, agriculture, or to recharge aquifers.

• Better Urban Planning:

  • Reclamation of Water Bodies: Rejuvenate and protect urban lakes, ponds, and wetlands that have been encroached upon. The Amrit Sarovar Mission is a recent initiative aimed at this.
  • Sponge Cities: Adopt urban designs that incorporate permeable surfaces, green roofs, and bioswales to absorb rainwater and reduce stormwater runoff, thereby recharging groundwater.
  • Mandatory Rainwater Harvesting: Enforce regulations making rainwater harvesting systems mandatory for all new constructions.

Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the ancient technique of collecting, storing, and conserving rainwater from rooftops, land surfaces, or rock catchments for future use or for recharging groundwater aquifers.

• Definition: It is a method of capturing runoff from a catchment (like a roof or land surface) and storing it in natural reservoirs or tanks, or directing it for the infiltration of surface water into subsurface aquifers before it is lost as surface runoff.
• Methods:
  • Rooftop Collection: Rainwater from rooftops is collected and channeled through pipes to storage tanks, sumps, or recharge pits. This water can be used directly for domestic purposes after basic filtration.
  • In-situ Recharge: This involves directing rainwater into the ground to replenish aquifers. Common structures include recharge pits, trenches, and injection wells.
  • Surface Water Collection and Recharge: This involves capturing runoff in a common area using community-level structures like check dams, percolation tanks, and village ponds (talabs). These structures slow down the flow of water, allowing more time for it to percolate into the ground.

Watershed Management

Watershed management is a holistic and sustainable approach to natural resource management within a specific geographical area.

• Watershed: A watershed (or catchment area) is defined as a geo-hydrological unit of land where all the water that is under it or drains off it collects into a single waterbody, such as a river, lake, or estuary. It is an area of land that separates waters flowing to different rivers or basins.
• Concept of Management: Watershed development involves the rational utilization of land and water resources for achieving optimum and sustained production, with minimum hazard to the natural resource base. It is an integrated approach that considers the watershed as a single planning unit and involves:
  • Conservation and management of both surface and groundwater.
  • Soil and moisture conservation measures like contour bunding and terracing.
  • Afforestation, horticulture, and pasture development.
  • Encouraging community participation in planning and implementation.
• Government Programs: The Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP), now subsumed under the PMKSY, is the flagship program for watershed development in India. Success stories like Ralegan Siddhi (Maharashtra), championed by Anna Hazare, and Sukhomajri (Haryana) have demonstrated the transformative potential of this approach.

Interlinking of Rivers

The National River Linking Project (NRLP), formally the National Perspective Plan (NPP), is an ambitious engineering proposal to link India’s rivers by a network of reservoirs and canals.

• Concept: The core idea is to transfer water from perceived “surplus” river basins (like the Ganga and Brahmaputra) to “deficit” basins (in Peninsular India). The project comprises 30 proposed links connecting 37 rivers, divided into two components: the Himalayan Rivers Development and the Peninsular Rivers Development. The idea dates back to the 19th-century proposals of Sir Arthur Cotton and was later advocated by Dr. K.L. Rao in the 1960s.

• Advantages of River-Linking:

  • Drought and Flood Control: Aims to mitigate floods in surplus basins and alleviate droughts in deficit regions by redirecting water.
  • Augmented Water Supply: Can potentially provide additional water for irrigation, drinking, and industrial purposes to water-scarce areas.
  • Economic Activities: Proponents argue it can boost fishing activities, generate hydropower, and create a network for inland navigation.

• Issues and Criticisms:

  • Defining ‘Surplus’: The concept of a ‘surplus’ river is ecologically flawed. Every drop of water in a river serves an ecological purpose, such as maintaining downstream ecosystems, flushing sediments, forming deltas, and preventing salinity ingress in estuaries.
  • Biodiversity and Forest Loss: The project would involve the construction of massive dams and canals, leading to the submergence of vast tracts of forests and agricultural land. For instance, the Ken-Betwa link threatens to submerge a core area of the Panna Tiger Reserve.
  • Geological Risks: The immense weight of water in large reservoirs can induce tectonic stress, potentially triggering Reservoir-Induced Seismicity (RIS), especially in the geologically active Himalayan region.
  • Ecological Disruption: Inter-basin water transfers can disrupt aquatic ecosystems, block fish migration routes, and introduce invasive species from one river system to another.
  • Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The decomposition of submerged vegetation in reservoirs releases large quantities of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
  • Economic Feasibility: The project involves colossal capital expenditure for construction and high recurring costs for pumping and maintenance, raising questions about its economic viability.
  • Social Issues: It would lead to the displacement of millions of people, primarily tribal and rural communities, creating immense challenges of land acquisition, rehabilitation, and resettlement.

Natural Vegetation: Global Distribution

Tropical Evergreen Rainforests

• Climate: Found in regions with consistently high temperatures (mean monthly temp > 18°C) and high precipitation (>200 cm) distributed evenly throughout the year (Af climate in Köppen classification).
• Characteristics:
  • Evergreen: Trees shed leaves at different times, so the forest appears green year-round.
  • High Biodiversity: These are the most biodiverse terrestrial ecosystems on Earth.
  • Multilayered Vegetation: A distinct vertical stratification with an emergent layer, a dense canopy, an understory, and a sparse forest floor due to lack of sunlight.
  • Epiphytes and Climbers: Rich in climbers (lianas) and epiphytes (e.g., orchids, ferns) which grow on other trees to reach sunlight.
  • Soil: The soil (latosols/oxisols) is often nutrient-poor and fragile due to intense leaching by heavy rainfall.
• Regions: Amazon Basin (South America), Congo Basin (Africa), parts of West Africa, and Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia).

Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests)

• Climate: Found in regions with a distinct wet and dry season (Am/Aw climate).
• Characteristics:
  • Deciduous: Most trees shed their leaves during the dry season as an adaptation to conserve water.
  • Biodiversity: Less biodiverse and less dense compared to evergreen rainforests.
  • Economic Value: Often contain valuable timber species like Teak and Sal.
• Regions: Large parts of India and South Asia, Indo-China, Northern Australia, Eastern Africa, and Southeast Brazil.

Mediterranean Type of Forest

• Climate: Characterized by warm to hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters (Cs climate).
• Characteristics:
  • Vegetation is adapted to summer drought, featuring broadleaf evergreen shrubs and trees with small, waxy, or thorny leaves (sclerophyllous vegetation) to reduce transpiration.
  • Known for citiculture (cultivation of citrus fruits like oranges, lemons) and viticulture (grape cultivation for wine-making).
• Regions: Countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, Central California, Central Chile, Cape Town (South Africa), and parts of Southern Australia.

Mixed Forest

• Climate: Found in cool temperate regions with moderate temperatures and uniform rainfall (e.g., British and Laurentian types).
• Characteristics: A transitional biome featuring a mixture of broadleaf deciduous trees (like oak, maple) and coniferous trees (like pine, fir).
• Regions: Eastern North America, Western Europe, and parts of East Asia.

Taiga Forest (Boreal or Coniferous Forest)

• Climate: Found in subarctic regions with long, severe winters and short, cool summers (Dfc/Dwc climate).
• Characteristics:
  • It is the world’s largest terrestrial biome, accounting for about one-third of the world’s forest area.
  • Dominated by coniferous trees (pine, spruce, fir).
  • Evergreen: Needles are retained year-round, allowing for photosynthesis whenever conditions are favorable.
  • Adaptations: Trees have conical shapes to shed snow and needle-like leaves to minimize water loss.
  • Low Biodiversity: Dominated by a few tree species.
  • Economic Utility: The softwood is crucial for the lumber, paper, and pulp industries.
• Regions: A vast belt across North America (Canada, Alaska) and Eurasia (Scandinavia, Russia/Siberia).

Lumbering Activity: Temperate vs. Tropical

Lumbering is more developed and commercially organized in temperate regions than in tropical regions due to several factors:

• Nature of Wood: Tropical forests are dominated by hardwoods (e.g., mahogany, ebony), which are heavy and difficult to cut and transport. Temperate forests consist mainly of softwoods (e.g., pine, fir), which are lighter, easier to fell, and more versatile for construction, furniture, and paper production.
• Forest Composition: Tropical rainforests consist of mixed stands, with hundreds of different species growing in a small area. This makes targeted, commercial logging of a single species inefficient. Temperate forests often have pure stands of one or a few commercially valuable species, which facilitates clear-cutting and mechanization.
• Accessibility & Climate: Tropical forests are extremely dense with thick undergrowth, making them inaccessible. The hot, humid climate, heavy rainfall, and prevalence of diseases make working conditions difficult. In temperate regions, logging is often carried out in winter when the ground is frozen and firm, allowing for easier movement of heavy machinery.
• Land Use Practices: Practices like shifting cultivation in many tropical regions lead to the degradation and clearing of forests for subsistence agriculture rather than organized commercial lumbering.

Natural Vegetation of India

Champion and Seth Classification

• The most authoritative and detailed classification of India’s forests was developed by Sir H.G. Champion in 1936 and later revised with S.K. Seth in 1968. Their scheme, “A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India,” classifies Indian vegetation into 16 major forest types and over 200 sub-types based on climatic, edaphic (soil), and biotic factors. For general purposes, Indian vegetation is often grouped into five prominent types.

Tropical Evergreen Vegetation

• Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests:

  • Conditions: Found in regions with high annual rainfall of more than 250 cm and a short dry season. The average annual temperature is around 25-27°C.
  • Characteristics: These are classic multi-storied rainforests with a very dense canopy. They are rich in biodiversity.
  • Distribution: Western slopes of the Western Ghats, hills of the North-East (Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland), and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
  • Species: Rosewood, Mahogany, Ebony, Aini, and various bamboos.

• Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests:

  • Conditions: Found in areas with rainfall between 200 to 250 cm.
  • Characteristics: These are transitional forests found on the periphery of wet evergreen forests. They are a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous species. They are less dense than their wet counterparts.
  • Distribution: Found alongside wet evergreen forests in the Western Ghats, Assam, and parts of Odisha.
  • Species: While commercially valuable species like Rosewood, Mahogany, and Ebony are present, other notable species include Laurel (Water Tree), White Cedar, Hollock, Jackfruit, and Jamun. Rubber trees are extensively cultivated in these climatic zones.

• Tropical Dry-Evergreen Forests:

  • Conditions: A unique type found in regions that receive rainfall primarily from the winter (Northeast) monsoon.
  • Characteristics: Consists of hard-leaved evergreen trees with fragrant flowers. The canopy is less dense.
  • Distribution: Confined to the Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu and adjacent parts of Andhra Pradesh.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

These are the most widespread forests in India, also known as monsoon forests.

• Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests:

  • Conditions: Found in regions with annual rainfall between 100 and 200 cm.
  • Characteristics: Trees shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks during the dry season (spring/early summer). These forests are economically very significant.
  • Distribution: Found along the foothills of the Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, and in states like Jharkhand, West Odisha, and Chhattisgarh.

• Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests:

  • Conditions: Found in areas with annual rainfall between 70 and 100 cm.
  • Characteristics: As rainfall decreases, these forests transition into thorny scrublands. They have a more open canopy, and trees shed their leaves for a longer period during the extended dry season.
  • Distribution: Cover vast areas of the country, including the rainier parts of the Peninsular plateau and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

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Prelims Pointers

• Blue Revolution: Launched during the Fifth (1974-79) and Sixth (1980-85) Five-Year Plans.
• FFDA: Fish Farmers Development Agency, nodal agency for promoting aquaculture at the district level.
• NFDB: National Fisheries Development Board, established in 2006, headquartered in Hyderabad.
• Neel Kranti Mission (2016): Aimed to double fishers’ income and triple production and exports.
• PMMSY: Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana, launched in 2020 for the fisheries sector.
• Falkenmark Index: Measures water scarcity.
  • Water Stress: < 1700 m³/person/year.
  • Water Scarcity: < 1000 m³/person/year.
• India is classified as a water-stressed country.
• India’s Water Use: Largest user of groundwater globally. Agriculture consumes over 80% of water.
• Rainfall Pattern: Southwest Monsoon provides 80-90% of India’s annual rainfall in four months.
• Rain-shadow Area: Leeward side of the Western Ghats (e.g., Marathwada).
• Watershed: A geo-hydrological unit of land where all water drains to a common point.
• NRLP: National River Linking Project has two components: Himalayan and Peninsular.
• Ken-Betwa Link: First project under NRLP, impacts the Panna Tiger Reserve.
• Reservoir-Induced Seismicity (RIS): A potential risk from large dams of the river-linking project.
• Taiga (Boreal Forest): The world’s largest terrestrial biome.
• Mediterranean Climate: Known for Sclerophyllous vegetation, Viticulture, and Citriculture.
• Lumbering: Temperate forests have commercially valuable softwood in pure stands; Tropical forests have hardwood in mixed stands.
• Forest Classification (India): Champion and Seth (1968) classification is the most widely used.
• Most Widespread Forests in India: Tropical Deciduous Forests.
• Tropical Wet Evergreen: Rainfall > 250 cm. Found in Western Ghats, NE India, A&N Islands.
• Tropical Moist Deciduous: Rainfall 100-200 cm.
• Tropical Dry-Evergreen Forests: Unique to the Coromandel Coast.

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Mains Insights

Fisheries Sector (GS-III: Economy)

1. Socio-Economic Impact: The Blue Revolution has been instrumental in providing livelihood security to millions of fishers, alleviating poverty in coastal and rural areas, and enhancing national food security. However, the benefits have been uneven, with commercial aquaculture often marginalizing traditional fishing communities.
2. Sustainability vs. Production: While initiatives like PMMSY aim to boost production, there is a critical need to balance this with ecological sustainability. Challenges like overfishing in marine waters, pollution from coastal aquaculture, destruction of mangroves, and the impacts of climate change threaten the long-term viability of the sector.
3. Blue Economy: The development of the fisheries sector is a cornerstone of India’s “Blue Economy” policy. This requires an integrated approach that connects fisheries with maritime security, marine tourism, port development, and deep-sea exploration while ensuring ecological health.

Water Resources (GS-I: Geography; GS-III: Environment, Economy; GS-II: Polity)

1. Water Crisis as a Governance Failure: India’s water crisis is less a result of natural scarcity and more a consequence of mismanagement. Distorted agricultural policies (MSP, free power), inefficient irrigation techniques, unplanned urbanization, and poor pollution control are the primary drivers. Addressing the crisis requires a paradigm shift from supply augmentation (dams, river-linking) to demand management (water efficiency, crop diversification).
2. Federal Tensions: Since water is a State List subject, its uneven distribution and increasing scarcity are major sources of inter-state disputes (e.g., Cauvery, Mahanadi, Sutlej-Yamuna Link). The Interlinking of Rivers project, while ambitious, faces significant hurdles related to inter-state consensus, in addition to its massive environmental and social costs.
3. Climate Change as a Threat Multiplier: Climate change is expected to exacerbate India’s water stress by altering monsoon patterns, increasing the frequency of extreme weather events (floods and droughts), and accelerating glacial melt, which affects the flow of Himalayan rivers. This necessitates building climate resilience into water management strategies.

Natural Vegetation (GS-I: Geography; GS-III: Environment)

1. Climate-Vegetation Interlinkage: The distribution of natural vegetation in India is a clear reflection of the spatial variation in climate, particularly rainfall and temperature, and topography. This relationship is crucial for understanding regional ecology and planning land use.
2. Debate on Development vs. Conservation: The Interlinking of Rivers project exemplifies the classic conflict between large-scale infrastructure development and environmental conservation. The submergence of pristine forests like the Panna Tiger Reserve for the Ken-Betwa link raises fundamental questions about the valuation of ecosystem services and the trade-offs involved in the pursuit of economic growth and water security.
3. Lumbering and Economic Geography: The contrast between lumbering in temperate and tropical regions is a classic example of how physical geography (climate, vegetation type, terrain) directly influences the nature and intensity of economic activities. The challenges in tropical lumbering highlight the need for sustainable forest management practices that differ from the industrial models of temperate regions.