GS Notes

1.5 - Geography Notes 44

18 min read

Elaborate Notes

GREEN REVOLUTION

The Green Revolution refers to a period of intense agricultural development that transformed India from a food-deficient nation to a self-sufficient one. This transformation was initiated in the mid-1960s to address the critical food shortages and famines that plagued the country post-independence.

  • Historical Context: In the 1950s and early 1960s, India faced a precarious food situation. The population was growing rapidly, while agricultural productivity stagnated due to traditional farming methods, dependence on monsoons, and inadequate infrastructure. The country was heavily reliant on food aid, particularly wheat imports from the United States under its Public Law (PL) 480 program, which often came with political conditions. The severe droughts of 1965-66 exacerbated the crisis, bringing India to the brink of a major famine. This context created the political will to adopt a new, technology-driven agricultural strategy.

  • Key Architects and Initiatives: The initiative was spearheaded by Indian geneticist M.S. Swaminathan, often called the “Father of the Green Revolution in India,” in collaboration with the American agronomist Norman Borlaug, whose work on developing High-Yielding Varieties (HYV) of wheat earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. The Indian government, under Prime Ministers Lal Bahadur Shastri and later Indira Gandhi, with Food and Agriculture Minister C. Subramaniam, launched programs like the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) in 1960-61 and the High-Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) in 1966.

  • Core Components (Inputs):

    • High-Yielding Variety (HYV) Seeds: These were the cornerstone of the revolution. Norman Borlaug developed dwarf varieties of wheat (e.g., Lerma Rojo 64-A, Sonora 64) in Mexico, which were cross-bred with Indian varieties. These seeds had several key characteristics: shorter and stronger stalks to prevent ‘lodging’ (bending over) when heavy with grain, faster maturation cycles allowing for multiple crops per year, and a significantly higher grain yield per hectare. A similar breakthrough was achieved with rice, with the IR-8 variety developed at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines.
    • Irrigation: HYV seeds have high water requirements. Their potential could only be realised with assured and controlled water supply. The government invested heavily in building dams (e.g., Bhakra-Nangal), canal systems, and promoted the use of tubewells and pumps through subsidies and rural electrification.
    • Chemical Fertilizers: The higher productivity of HYV seeds rapidly depleted soil nutrients. To sustain yields, intensive application of chemical fertilizers, particularly nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), was necessary.
    • Pesticides and Herbicides: HYV monocultures were more susceptible to pests and diseases compared to diverse indigenous varieties. The use of chemical pesticides and herbicides became essential to protect the crops and maximise output.
    • Capital and Mechanization: The new technology was capital-intensive. Farmers needed credit to purchase seeds, fertilizers, and machinery like tractors, threshers, and water pumps. The government facilitated this through cooperative societies and rural banks.
    • Government Support: The state played a crucial role by providing subsidies on inputs (fertilizers, electricity for irrigation), extending agricultural credit, and, most importantly, offering a guaranteed market through the Minimum Support Price (MSP) mechanism, which incentivised farmers to adopt the new technology without fear of a price collapse due to bumper harvests.

  • Phases of Implementation:

    • Phase I (c. 1966-1972): Initially termed the “wheat revolution,” this phase focused on wheat cultivation in states with assured irrigation and infrastructure, such as Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh. The results were dramatic, with wheat production skyrocketing.
    • Phase II (c. 1972-1985): The revolution expanded to include rice and spread to other regions with irrigation potential, such as parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. This phase consolidated India’s food security.
    • Phase III (Post-1985): Efforts were made to extend the benefits to eastern and central India, with mixed success. This phase is often seen as a period of plateauing yields and growing awareness of the negative consequences of the initial model.

  • Positive Implications:

    • Self-Sufficiency: India achieved self-sufficiency in food grains by the late 1970s, ending its reliance on imports and the associated political vulnerabilities. Food grain production increased from about 82 million tonnes in 1960-61 to over 176 million tonnes by 1990-91.
    • Increased Rural Income: Farmers in the Green Revolution belts witnessed a significant rise in their incomes, leading to rural prosperity.
    • Famine Aversion: The creation of a buffer stock of food grains by the Food Corporation of India (FCI) helped prevent large-scale famines, even during severe droughts.
    • Commercialisation of Agriculture: Subsistence farming gave way to commercial farming, with production oriented towards the market.
    • Forward and Backward Linkages: The revolution stimulated industrial growth through demand for farm machinery, fertilizers, and pesticides (backward linkages) and by providing raw materials for food processing industries (forward linkages).

  • Negative Implications:

    • Environmental:
      • Loss of Biodiversity: The focus on a few HYVs of wheat and rice led to the neglect and disappearance of thousands of indigenous crop varieties and landraces, eroding the genetic base of Indian agriculture. Scholar-activist Vandana Shiva, in her work The Violence of the Green Revolution (1991), has extensively critiqued this aspect.
      • Land and Soil Degradation: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers altered soil chemistry, destroyed beneficial microorganisms, and led to nutrient imbalances. Over-irrigation, particularly flood irrigation, caused waterlogging and soil salinization in many areas, rendering fertile land unproductive.
      • Groundwater Depletion: The proliferation of tubewells for water-intensive crops like rice in semi-arid regions (e.g., Punjab) led to a drastic and unsustainable decline in groundwater levels.
    • Economic:
      • Increased Inequality: The benefits were cornered by large and medium farmers who could afford the expensive inputs. Small and marginal farmers were often left behind, leading to a widening of income disparities. This has been a subject of study by economists like G. S. Bhalla.
      • Regional Disparity: The revolution was concentrated in irrigated regions, leading to significant economic differences between states like Punjab and Haryana and the rainfed agricultural regions of eastern and central India.
      • Increased Farmer Debt: The high cost of inputs pushed many small farmers into a cycle of debt.
      • Fiscal Burden: Heavy subsidies on fertilizers, power, and water, along with the mounting bill for MSP procurement, placed a significant strain on government finances.
    • Social:
      • Health Impacts: Indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers contaminated water, soil, and the food chain, leading to serious health issues, including cancer clusters, as reported in parts of Punjab (the “Cancer Train” from Bathinda is a grim testimony).
      • Labour Displacement and Migration: Mechanization displaced agricultural labour, while the seasonal demand for labour in Green Revolution states encouraged migration from poorer states like Bihar and Eastern UP, creating new social dynamics and dependencies.

CROPPING SEASONS OF INDIA

India’s diverse climate allows for distinct cropping seasons, primarily in the northern and interior parts of the country. These are traditionally aligned with the monsoon cycle. The terms ‘Kharif’ and ‘Rabi’ are derived from Arabic words for ‘autumn’ and ‘spring’ respectively.

  • Kharif Season (Monsoon Crop):

    • Sowing: Onset of the southwest monsoon (June-July).
    • Harvesting: End of the monsoon/beginning of winter (September-October).
    • Characteristics: These crops require high temperature and significant rainfall.
    • Major Crops: Rice, Maize, Jowar (Sorghum), Bajra (Pearl Millet), Ragi (Finger Millet), Arhar (Tur), Moong, Urad, Cotton, Jute, Groundnut, and Soybean.

  • Rabi Season (Winter Crop):

    • Sowing: Beginning of winter, after the monsoon retreat (October-November).
    • Harvesting: Beginning of summer (March-April).
    • Characteristics: These crops require a cool growing season and less water. The availability of winter precipitation from Western Disturbances is crucial in North India.
    • Major Crops: Wheat, Barley, Oats, Gram (Chana), Peas, Lentil (Masur), Mustard, Linseed.

  • Zaid Season (Summer Crop):

    • Sowing & Harvesting: This is a short intermediate season between the Rabi and Kharif seasons. Sown in March-April and harvested by June-July.
    • Characteristics: These are quick-maturing crops grown on irrigated lands.
    • Major Crops: Seasonal fruits (Watermelon, Muskmelon), vegetables (Cucumber, Bitter Gourd), and fodder crops.

CROPPING CONDITIONS

The geographical distribution of crops is determined by specific agro-climatic conditions, primarily temperature, precipitation, and soil type.

  • Based on Temperature:

    • Tropical Crops (25-35°C): Require high temperatures throughout the year. Examples: Rice, Jute, Sugarcane, Coffee, Rubber.
    • Sub-tropical Crops (20-25°C): Thrive in warm conditions. Examples: Cotton, Maize, Tea, Pulses, Tobacco.
    • Temperate Crops (<20°C): Require cooler temperatures, especially during the initial growth period. Examples: Wheat, Mustard, Barley, Gram.

  • Based on Precipitation:

    • High Rainfall Crops (>120 cm): Water-intensive crops. Examples: Rice, Jute, Sugarcane, Rubber, Tea, Coffee.
    • Moderate Rainfall Crops (75-120 cm): Examples: Wheat, Maize.
    • Low Rainfall/Drought-Resistant Crops (<75 cm): Can survive in semi-arid conditions. Examples: Millets (Jowar, Bajra), Cotton, Pulses, Oilseeds, Tobacco.

  • Based on Soil Type:

    • Alluvial Soil: Highly fertile, found in the Indo-Gangetic plains and coastal areas. Suitable for a wide range of crops like Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane, Cotton, Jute.
    • Black Soil (Regur Soil): Found in the Deccan Plateau region. High clay content and excellent moisture retention capacity make it ideal for Cotton. Also suitable for Sugarcane, oilseeds, and citrus fruits.
    • Red and Yellow Soil: Found in areas of lower rainfall in the Deccan plateau and eastern India. Less fertile but responsive to fertilizers. Suitable for Rice (in lowlands), Ragi, Groundnut, Tobacco, and millets.
    • Laterite Soil: Found in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall, leading to leaching. Acidic and low in fertility but suitable for plantation crops like Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Cashew, and Tapioca with proper management.

RICE AND WHEAT CULTIVATION IN NORTH INDIA

The Northern Plains, particularly Punjab, Haryana, and Western UP, have become the epicentre of a rice-wheat monoculture cropping system, a direct consequence of the Green Revolution.

  • Favourable Factors:

    • Agro-climatic Suitability: The Rabi season is ideal for wheat (cool winters), and while the Kharif season is hot, the traditional crop was not rice.
    • Soil: The fertile alluvial soils of the Indo-Gangetic plain are highly productive.
    • Green Revolution Legacy: The region was the primary beneficiary of HYV seeds, chemical inputs, and mechanization.
    • Irrigation Network: A dense network of canals and a high concentration of tubewells provide the assured irrigation necessary for this water-intensive combination.
    • Procurement Infrastructure & MSP: A well-established network of mandis and robust procurement by the FCI at remunerative MSPs for wheat and rice provides farmers with a guaranteed income, discouraging diversification.
    • Demand: Rice and wheat form the staple diet for a large part of the Indian population, ensuring high demand.

  • Issues Arising from the Rice-Wheat Cycle:

    • Ecological Crisis:
      • Groundwater Depletion: The cultivation of rice, a water-guzzling crop, in a semi-arid region like Punjab has led to a catastrophic decline in the water table.
      • Soil Degradation: Monoculture and intensive chemical use have degraded soil health, leading to nutrient deficiencies and reduced organic matter.
    • Crop Diversification Neglect: The assured returns from rice and wheat have disincentivized farmers from growing other nutritionally important and ecologically suitable crops like pulses, oilseeds, and millets.
    • Stubble Burning (Parali): The short time window between harvesting rice (using combine harvesters that leave tall stubble) and sowing wheat compels farmers to burn the residue. This practice is a major contributor to severe air pollution in the National Capital Region and across North India during winter months.
    • Economic Unsustainability: The system is heavily dependent on government subsidies (power, fertilizer, MSP), making it fiscally unsustainable. The agriculture has also become highly capital and energy-intensive.

COFFEE AND TEA

These are the two major beverage plantation crops of India, grown under specific agro-climatic conditions.

  • Tea (Camellia sinensis):

    • Conditions: Requires a hot and humid climate (20-30°C), abundant rainfall (150-300 cm) distributed throughout the year, and well-drained, deep, loamy soil. Undulating terrain on hill slopes is ideal as it prevents waterlogging.
    • Major Regions:
      • Northeast India: Assam (largest producer, known for strong liquor tea), West Bengal (Darjeeling for its unique ‘muscatel’ flavour; Dooars and Terai regions).
      • South India: Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu, Kerala (Munnar), and Karnataka.

  • Coffee (Coffea species):

    • Conditions: Requires a hot and humid climate (15-28°C), significant rainfall (150-250 cm), and well-drained, rich loamy soil. It is typically grown on hill slopes at elevations between 600 to 1600 metres, often under shady trees.
    • Major Regions: Primarily concentrated in the hills of South India, known as the ‘Coffee Triangle’.
      • Karnataka: Largest producer in India (Chikmagalur, Kodagu, Hassan districts).
      • Kerala: Second largest producer (Wayanad).
      • Tamil Nadu: Third largest producer (Nilgiris, Yercaud).
    • Varieties: India predominantly grows two varieties: Arabica (higher quality, grown at higher altitudes) and Robusta (hardier, higher yield). Indian coffee is reputed globally for being shade-grown.

MILLETS

Millets are a group of small-seeded grasses, often referred to as coarse grains or ‘nutri-cereals’. They were a staple food in India before the Green Revolution. Recognizing their importance, the UN declared 2023 as the International Year of Millets on India’s proposal.

  • Prominent Millets in India:
    • Major Millets: Jowar (Sorghum), Bajra (Pearl Millet), Ragi (Finger Millet).
    • Minor Millets: Kodo Millet, Foxtail Millet (Kangni), Little Millet (Kutki), Barnyard Millet, Proso Millet, Amaranth (Ramdana), Buckwheat (Kuttu).
  • Growing Conditions:
    • Temperature: 20-30°C.
    • Rainfall: 50-100 cm. They are highly drought-tolerant and can be grown in arid and semi-arid regions with poor soil fertility.
  • Advantages:
    • Nutritional Superiority: Rich in protein, fibre, minerals (iron, calcium), and vitamins. They have a low glycemic index, making them beneficial for managing diabetes.
    • Climate Resilience: Their tolerance to drought, high temperatures, and poor soils makes them a ‘climate-smart’ crop, crucial for food security in an era of climate change.
    • Low Input Requirement: They require fewer inputs like fertilizers and pesticides compared to rice and wheat.

PULSES

Pulses are the edible seeds of plants in the legume family. They are a critical source of protein in the Indian diet.

  • Growing Conditions:
    • Temperature: 20-25°C.
    • Rainfall: Require modest rainfall (around 75 cm) and can be grown in rainfed areas.
  • Role in Agriculture: Pulses are leguminous crops that fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil through root nodules, enhancing soil fertility. They are ideal for crop rotation and intercropping.
  • The Pulse Paradox: India is the world’s largest producer (around 25% of global output), largest consumer, and also the largest importer of pulses. This reflects a significant production-demand gap.
  • Major Producing States: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
  • Reasons for Low Production and Yield:
    • Green Revolution Impact: The focus on rice and wheat pushed pulse cultivation to marginal, rainfed, and less fertile lands.
    • Policy Neglect: Lower MSP and less effective procurement compared to cereals made pulses less profitable for farmers.
    • Lack of R&D: Insufficient investment in developing high-yielding, pest-resistant varieties.
    • Market Vulnerabilities: Long supply chains and susceptibility to price volatility.
  • Measures Needed:
    • Enhance MSP and procurement to make pulse cultivation remunerative.
    • Develop and distribute better quality seeds (HYVs).
    • Promote pulses as part of cropping systems in irrigated areas.
    • Strengthen market infrastructure and FPOs for pulse farmers.

OILSEEDS

Oilseeds are crops grown for the purpose of extracting oil from their seeds. Despite being a major producer, India is one of the world’s largest importers of edible oils.

  • Growing Conditions: Generally thrive in moderate temperatures with low to moderate rainfall.
  • Major Producing States: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
  • The Import Dependency Issue: India imports over 60% of its edible oil requirements, primarily Palm oil (from Indonesia and Malaysia) and Soybean oil (from Brazil and Argentina). This large import bill is a major economic and strategic concern.
  • Reasons for Low Production:
    • Policy Focus: The Green Revolution’s emphasis on cereals sidelined oilseed cultivation.
    • Price and Market Issues: Low price support and inconsistent trade policies have created uncertainty for farmers.
    • Technological Gap: Lower availability of high-yielding varieties compared to cereals.
    • Cultivation on Marginal Lands: A significant portion of oilseed cultivation occurs in rainfed, low-fertility areas.
  • Strategies to Boost Production:
    • Technology Mission on Oilseeds (1986): An early initiative to improve production, often called the Yellow Revolution.
    • National Mission on Edible Oils – Oil Palm (NMEO-OP): A recent government scheme to promote palm oil cultivation in India, especially in the Northeast and Andaman & Nicobar Islands, to reduce import dependency.
    • Improving Seed Quality and Area: Increasing Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) with HYVs and expanding cultivation.
    • Price and Procurement Support: Strengthening MSP operations for oilseeds.
    • Processing and Value Addition: Encouraging the setup of processing units through FPOs to improve farmer incomes.
  • Issues in Palm Oil Cultivation:
    • Ecological Concerns: It is a water-intensive crop and its expansion in biodiversity hotspots raises concerns about deforestation and habitat loss.
    • Long Gestation Period: Palm trees take several years to mature, posing a risk for small farmers.

Prelims Pointers

  • Green Revolution Figures:
    • World: Norman Borlaug
    • India: M.S. Swaminathan
  • Key HYV Seeds: Lerma Rojo 64-A, Sonora 64 (Wheat); IR-8 (Rice).
  • Green Revolution Phases:
    • Phase I (1966-72): Wheat-focused, in Punjab, Haryana, Western UP.
    • Phase II (1972-85): Spread to rice and other regions.
  • Kharif Crops: Rice, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Cotton, Jute, Groundnut, Soybean. (Sown: June-July).
  • Rabi Crops: Wheat, Barley, Gram, Mustard, Linseed. (Sown: Oct-Nov).
  • Zaid Crops: Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, Fodder crops. (Sown: March-April).
  • Soil-Crop Match:
    • Alluvial: Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane.
    • Black (Regur): Cotton, Sugarcane.
    • Red: Ragi, Groundnut, Millets.
    • Laterite: Tea, Coffee, Cashew, Rubber.
  • Tea Production: Assam is the largest producer in India. Darjeeling tea is famous for its ‘muscatel’ flavour.
  • Coffee Production: Karnataka is the largest producer. Main varieties are Arabica and Robusta.
  • International Year of Millets: 2023, proposed by India.
  • Major Millets: Jowar (Sorghum), Bajra (Pearl Millet), Ragi (Finger Millet).
  • Pulses Status: India is the largest producer, consumer, and importer of pulses.
  • Largest Pulse Producer State: Madhya Pradesh.
  • Oilseeds Status: India imports over 60% of its edible oil.
  • Largest Oilseed Producer State: Madhya Pradesh.
  • Major Imported Edible Oils: Palm Oil (from Indonesia, Malaysia), Soybean Oil (from Brazil, Argentina).
  • Government Schemes:
    • NMEO-OP: National Mission on Edible Oils – Oil Palm.
    • Technology Mission on Oilseeds (1986) is associated with the Yellow Revolution.

Mains Insights

Green Revolution: A Critical Re-evaluation

  • Dichotomy of Success: While the Green Revolution was undeniably successful in achieving its primary objective of food security (GS-III), its legacy is complex. It must be analysed not just in terms of production figures but also its long-term ecological, economic, and social costs.
  • Historiographical Debate:
    • Early Narrative (The ‘Miracle’ View): Initially, it was hailed as a monumental success, a technological fix that saved India from starvation and external dependency. This perspective emphasizes national self-reliance.
    • Critical Perspective (The ‘Violence’ View): Scholars like Vandana Shiva argue that it was an ecological and social disaster. It replaced sustainable, diverse farming systems with a fragile, chemical-intensive monoculture, destroyed biodiversity, and created deep social inequalities.
  • Cause-Effect Analysis:
    • Cause: Policy choice prioritizing select crops (wheat, rice) and regions (irrigated north).
    • Effect 1 (Economic): Led to pronounced inter-regional (Punjab vs. Bihar) and intra-regional (large vs. small farmers) disparities, which continue to shape India’s political economy.
    • Effect 2 (Ecological): The rice-wheat cycle in Punjab-Haryana is a classic example of an ecologically unsustainable agricultural model, leading to a groundwater crisis and severe air pollution, posing a direct threat to long-term sustainability (GS-III).
  • Contemporary Relevance: The current agrarian crisis, farmer protests, and demands for legalizing MSP are direct legacies of the Green Revolution model. The debate has now shifted towards the need for an “Evergreen Revolution” (a term coined by M.S. Swaminathan), which focuses on increasing productivity in perpetuity without associated ecological harm, blending modern science with traditional wisdom.

The Policy-Induced Crisis in Pulses and Oilseeds

  • A Case of Policy Asymmetry: The crisis in pulses and oilseeds is a direct consequence of a policy framework heavily skewed in favour of cereals. The robust MSP and procurement system for rice and wheat acted as a powerful disincentive for farmers to cultivate other essential crops.
  • From Self-Sufficiency to Import Dependency: India was nearly self-sufficient in edible oils in the 1950s. The current import dependency (over 60%) is a major drain on foreign exchange and exposes India’s food security to global price shocks and geopolitical instability (GS-II, GS-III).
  • Connecting the Dots:
    1. Low Production → High Imports: This creates a cycle where cheap imports depress domestic prices, further disincentivizing local production.
    2. Nutritional Security vs. Calorie Security: The focus on calorie-rich cereals at the expense of protein-rich pulses and fat-providing oilseeds has contributed to India’s malnutrition problem, particularly “hidden hunger” (micronutrient deficiencies). This links agricultural policy directly to public health outcomes (GS-II).
    3. Solutions: The solution lies in a multi-pronged strategy: re-calibrating the MSP regime, investing heavily in R&D for HYVs in pulses and oilseeds, strengthening market infrastructure through FPOs, and creating a stable trade policy. This aligns with the goal of doubling farmers’ income and achieving Atmanirbhar Bharat.

Millets: The Future of Food and Farming?

  • A Panacea for Modern Challenges: Millets offer a potential solution to the interconnected challenges of agrarian distress, malnutrition, and climate change (GS-III).
    • For Farmers: They are low-risk, low-input crops suitable for marginal lands, offering a resilient source of income in rainfed areas.
    • For Consumers: They are nutritionally superior to rice and wheat, helping combat lifestyle diseases and malnutrition.
    • For the Environment: Their low water footprint and resilience to climate variability make them an ideal crop for sustainable agriculture.
  • From ‘Coarse Grains’ to ‘Nutri-Cereals’: The challenge lies in changing the perception of millets from being “poor man’s food” to a modern superfood. This requires government intervention in the form of MSP, inclusion in the Public Distribution System (PDS), and creating awareness and demand through public campaigns. The International Year of Millets 2023 is a significant step in this direction.

The Palm Oil Dilemma: Development vs. Environment

  • The Economic Imperative: The NMEO-OP mission is driven by the urgent need to cut the massive edible oil import bill. For farmers, it promises high returns.
  • The Ecological Red Flag: Palm oil cultivation is globally associated with large-scale deforestation, biodiversity loss, and high water consumption. Implementing this on a large scale in India’s ecologically sensitive regions like the Northeast and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands raises serious environmental concerns that cannot be ignored.
  • The Governance Challenge: This presents a classic Environment vs. Development dilemma (GS-III). The key is to find a sustainable path forward. This involves enforcing strict environmental safeguards, promoting cultivation only on suitable non-forest lands, ensuring it doesn’t replace local food crops, and protecting the rights of local communities, especially tribal populations. The policy’s success will depend on its ability to balance economic goals with ecological sustainability.

Graph View