GS Notes

1.5 - Geography Notes 45

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Elaborate Notes

MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

A mineral is a naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having a definite chemical composition and a characteristic crystalline structure. Geologically and commercially, the term encompasses a wide variety of substances. Resources are classified based on their chemical and physical properties.

  • 1) Metallic Minerals: These are minerals that contain one or more metallic elements. They are good conductors of heat and electricity and are typically hard and lustrous.

    • a) Ferrous Minerals: These minerals contain iron as a primary constituent. They form the backbone of modern industrial economy.
      • Example: Iron Ore: It is the fundamental mineral for industrial development. The quality of iron ore is determined by the percentage of iron content.
    • b) Non-ferrous Minerals: These minerals do not contain iron. They are crucial for a variety of industries including metallurgical, engineering, and electrical industries.
      • Example: Copper, Bauxite: Copper is valued for its high ductility, malleability, and conductivity. Bauxite is the primary ore of aluminum, known for its light weight and resistance to corrosion.

  • 2) Non-Metallic Minerals: These minerals do not contain metals.

    • a) Organic or Energy Minerals: These are derived from the buried remains of plants and animals (fossil fuels). They are also known as mineral fuels.
      • Example: Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas.
    • b) Other Non-Metallic Minerals: These include minerals like limestone, mica, gypsum, etc., used in various industries like cement, electronics, and chemicals.

A) Iron Ore

Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides.

  • a) Magnetite (Fe₃O₄):

    • Color and Composition: It is black in color and is the finest quality of iron ore with a very high iron content, up to 72.4 percent.
    • Geological Association: It is typically associated with igneous and metamorphic rocks, often found in crystalline formations. Its magnetic properties are a key characteristic, which historically aided in its discovery and is used in prospecting. The name itself derives from Magnesia, a district in Greece where it was found.

  • b) Haematite (Fe₂O₃):

    • Color and Composition: It is reddish in color (from the Greek word ‘haima’ for blood) and is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of quantity used. It has a slightly lower iron content than magnetite, typically 60-70 percent.
    • Geological Association: It is primarily found in sedimentary rocks of various geological ages. Major deposits in India, like those in Odisha and Jharkhand, are of the Haematite variety, associated with the Pre-Cambrian iron ore series.

  • c) Limonite (2Fe₂O₃.3H₂O):

    • Color and Composition: It is yellowish to dark brown in color. It is a hydrated iron oxide and is considered an inferior ore, with an iron content of 35-50 percent.
    • Geological Association: It is found in sedimentary rocks and is often formed through the alteration (hydration) of other iron minerals. The Damuda series in the Raniganj coalfield in India contains Limonite ore.

  • d) Siderite (FeCO₃):

    • Color and Composition: It is greyish or ash-brown in color. As an iron carbonate, it has a low iron content, typically less than 48 percent, and contains many impurities.
    • Geological Association: It is found in sedimentary rocks. Due to its low iron content and the presence of impurities, it is often not economically viable to mine unless other factors, such as proximity to coal fields, make it attractive.

  • Global Distribution of Iron Ore:

    • North America: The Lake Superior region, particularly the Mesabi, Vermilion, and Cuyuna ranges in the USA, has been a historic and significant producer. The Labrador Trough in Canada is another major deposit.
    • South America: Brazil’s Itabira mines in Minas Gerais state and Venezuela’s Cerro Bolívar are among the world’s largest high-grade iron ore deposits.
    • Europe: The Kiruna and Gällivare mines in Sweden are known for their high-grade magnetite ores. Bilbao in Spain has been a historical center for iron mining.
    • Africa: Bomi Hills in Liberia and the Postmasburg and Transvaal regions in South Africa hold significant reserves.
    • Asia: In the former USSR region, Krivoy Rog and the Kerch Peninsula (Ukraine), the Kuznetsk Basin (Kuzbas), and Magnitogorsk (Siberia) are major centers. China’s Manchurian deposits are also extensive.
    • Australia: Western Australia is a global leader in iron ore production, with major mines in the Pilbara region, including Mount Goldsworthy and the Hamersley Range (Iron Knob is in South Australia).

B) Manganese

Manganese is a crucial ferro-alloy metal, primarily used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy to make steel tough and resistant to rusting.

  • Ore: The primary ore of manganese is Pyrolusite (Manganese Dioxide, MnO₂). Other ores include Psilomelane and Braunite.
  • Global Distribution:
    • South America: Brazil is a major producer with key mines in the states of Minas Gerais (e.g., Macapa) and Mato Grosso do Sul.
    • Africa: The Postmasburg region in South Africa holds one of the world’s largest manganese deposits. The Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) also has significant reserves.
    • Asia: Major deposits in the former USSR region include Nikopol and Tokmak in Ukraine and Chiatura in Georgia. The Ural Mountains in Russia are also a key source.

C) Copper

Copper is a highly malleable, ductile, and conductive metal, making it indispensable for electrical wiring, electronics, and plumbing.

  • Ore: The most common ore of copper is Chalcopyrite (Copper Iron Sulfide, CuFeS₂). Other ores include Bornite and Chalcocite.
  • Global Distribution:
    • North America: The Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada, is famous for its nickel-copper deposits. Lynn Lake in Manitoba is another important Canadian source.
    • South America: Chile is the world’s largest producer of copper, with giant mines like Chuquicamata and San José. Casapalca in Peru is also a significant mining center.
    • Africa: The Katanga Copper Crescent, stretching through Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo, is one of the richest copper belts globally.
    • Asia: The region around Lake Balkhash in Kazakhstan (a former Soviet republic) and Ulan Bator in Mongolia have notable copper deposits.

D) Aluminum

Aluminum is a lightweight, strong, and corrosion-resistant metal, extracted from bauxite ore.

  • Ore: The principal ore of aluminum is Bauxite, a hydrated aluminum oxide.
  • Global Distribution:
    • North America: The states of Arkansas and Alabama in the USA have historically been important producers, though their significance has declined.
    • South America & Caribbean: Jamaica, Guyana, and Suriname in the Caribbean and South America are major bauxite producers.
    • Europe: France and Hungary have notable bauxite reserves.
    • Africa: Guinea possesses the world’s largest bauxite reserves.
    • Asia: Russia has deposits in the Ural Mountains and Krasnaya region.
    • Australia: Australia is a leading producer, with vast deposits at Weipa (Cape York Peninsula) and in the Darling Range of Western Australia.

E) Gold

Gold is a precious metal valued for its use in jewelry, investment, and as a reserve asset.

  • Global Distribution:
    • North America: The USA has significant deposits in Nevada (Carlin Trend), Alaska, and California (historically famous for the 1849 Gold Rush).
    • Canada: Major gold-producing provinces include Ontario, Quebec, and British Columbia.
    • South Africa: The Witwatersrand Basin has historically been the world’s largest gold-producing region.
    • Australia: The Kalgoorlie-Coolgardie region in Western Australia is a major goldfield, known for its “Super Pit.”

F) Tin

Tin is primarily used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion (tin plating) and in alloys like bronze and solder.

  • Ore: The main ore of tin is Cassiterite (SnO₂).
  • Global Distribution:
    • A significant proportion of the world’s tin is found in a belt stretching through Southeast Asia, including countries like Malaysia (Kinta Valley), Indonesia (Bangka and Belitung islands), Thailand, and China.
    • Nigeria in Africa also has notable tin deposits.

ENERGY RESOURCES

These are resources used to produce energy, primarily for electricity generation, heating, and transportation.

  • 1) Coal:

    • Formation: Coal is a combustible sedimentary rock formed from ancient plant matter (not animals) that was buried, heated, and compressed over millions of years in swampy environments during the Carboniferous period (approx. 360 to 300 million years ago). This process is known as coalification.
    • Varieties of Coal (Ranked by Carbon Content and Calorific Value):
      • a) Anthracite: Highest rank of coal, with carbon content over 90-95%. It is hard, brittle, and burns with a short, blue, smokeless flame. It has the highest heating value.
      • b) Bituminous: Most abundant type of coal, with carbon content ranging from 45% to 86%. It is used extensively for electricity generation and as coking coal for steel production.
      • c) Lignite: Also known as brown coal, it is a lower-grade coal with 38-45% carbon. It has high moisture content and is primarily used for power generation.
      • d) Peat: This is the precursor to coal, an unconsolidated deposit of partially decayed plant matter. It has a very low carbon content (less than 38%) and high moisture, making it an inefficient fuel.

  • Global Distribution of Coal: The summary text under ‘Coal’ incorrectly lists global oil and gas fields. The correct global distribution of major coal fields is:

    • USA: Appalachian Mountains (Pennsylvania, West Virginia), Interior Province (Illinois), and Western regions (Wyoming’s Powder River Basin).
    • Europe: Ruhr Valley (Germany), Silesian Basin (Poland), Donbas Basin (Ukraine).
    • Asia: China is the world’s largest producer and consumer, with major fields in Shanxi and Inner Mongolia. India’s major fields are in the Damodar Valley (Jharia, Raniganj). Russia has vast reserves in the Kuznetsk (Kuzbas) and Tunguska basins in Siberia.
    • Australia: Major producer and exporter from fields in Queensland and New South Wales.

  • 2) Oilfields and Natural Gas:

    • Formation: Petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels formed from the remains of ancient marine microorganisms (plankton and algae) deposited on the sea floor. Over millions of years, heat and pressure converted this organic matter into hydrocarbons. They are found trapped in porous sedimentary rock formations beneath impermeable cap rocks.
    • Global Distribution:
      • North America: Gulf Coast (Texas, Louisiana), Permian Basin, California, Alaska (Prudhoe Bay) in the USA. Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (Alberta).
      • South America: Lake Maracaibo and Orinoco Basin in Venezuela, offshore fields in Brazil.
      • Europe: The North Sea (shared by UK, Norway, Denmark, etc.) is a major province. Brent Crude, a major benchmark for oil pricing, originates here.
      • Africa: Major producers include Nigeria (Niger Delta), Algeria, Libya, and Angola.
      • Asia (Middle East): This region holds the world’s largest reserves. Key fields include Ghawar in Saudi Arabia, Kirkuk in Iraq, and Burgan in Kuwait. The entire Persian Gulf region is a massive petroleum province.
      • Asia (Other): Russia has vast reserves in West Siberia, the Volga-Urals region, and Sakhalin Island. The Caspian Sea region (Baku, Azerbaijan) is historically significant. Southeast Asia has fields in Indonesia (Sumatra) and Malaysia (Sarawak). China has major fields in Daqing and Shengli.
    • Regions in India:
      • Oldest Fields (Assam): Digboi (oldest operating oil field in India, discovered in 1889), Naharkatiya, Moran-Hugrijan, and Surma Valley.
      • Western India (Gujarat): Ankleshwar is the most important field. Others are located in the Khambhat (Cambay) basin, extending to Kalol, Mehsana, etc.
      • Offshore Fields: Mumbai High, located about 160 km off the Mumbai coast, is India’s largest oil and gas producing field. Other offshore fields include Bassein and the Krishna-Godavari (KG) Basin, which is a major source of natural gas.

  • 3) Shale Gas:

    • Definition: Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped within fine-grained sedimentary rocks known as shale formations.
    • Extraction Technology: Its extraction became commercially viable with the development of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) combined with horizontal drilling. In fracking, a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and chemicals is injected into the rock to create fractures, allowing the gas to escape and flow to the well.
    • Leading Countries (Technically Recoverable Resources): According to assessments by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the countries with the largest estimated reserves are China, Argentina, Algeria, USA, and Canada. The USA has led the “shale revolution” and became a major producer.

ROCK FORMATIONS IN INDIA

The geological structure of India provides the foundation for its diverse topography and rich mineral resource base. The rock systems are classified based on their age of formation.

  • 1) Archean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian):

    • Characteristics: These are the oldest rocks, forming the “basement complex” or foundation of the Indian subcontinent. They are over 2.5 billion years old. Having been subjected to intense heat and pressure over geological time, they are primarily metamorphic in nature (gneisses and schists).
    • Fossils & Minerals: They are pre-biotic and hence are azoic or unfossiliferous (no evidence of life). Being the primeval rocks, they lack economically significant minerals in their original form, though they are the parent material for later mineral-rich formations.
    • Distribution: They form the core of the Peninsular Plateau, visible in regions like Bundelkhand (Bundelkhand Gneiss), the Nilgiri Hills, and parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

  • 2) Dharwar Rock System (Proterozoic):

    • Formation: Formed by the erosion and sedimentation of the Archean basement rocks, these are the oldest sedimentary rocks found in India. They also underwent significant metamorphism.
    • Distribution: First studied in the Dharwad district of Karnataka, hence the name. They are also found in the Aravalli range and the Chota Nagpur Plateau.
    • Economic Significance: These rocks are India’s most important source of metalliferous minerals. They are rich in high-grade iron ore (haematite), manganese, copper, lead, zinc, and gold (e.g., Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka are in Dharwar rocks).

  • 3) Cuddapah Rock System:

    • Formation: Formed from the erosion and deposition of Dharwar and Archean rocks in synclinal basins. These are largely unfossiliferous sedimentary rocks like sandstones, shales, and limestones.
    • Distribution: Named after the Cuddapah district in Andhra Pradesh where they are best exposed in a semi-circular basin.
    • Economic Significance: They are not as rich in metallic minerals as the Dharwar system but contain important non-metallic minerals like high-quality sandstone, limestone, and dolomite. They are also associated with reserves of Uranium (e.g., Tummalapalle mine in Andhra Pradesh) and asbestos.

  • 4) Vindhyan Rock System:

    • Formation: This system rests over the Cuddapah rocks and is composed of thick sedimentary deposits. The lower part shows some marine fossils, but the upper parts are largely unfossiliferous.
    • Distribution: They occupy a large basin stretching from Chittorgarh in Rajasthan to Sasaram in Bihar, covering the Vindhya mountain range.
    • Economic Significance: They are a major source of building materials, including ornamental sandstone (used in Stupas of Sanchi and Red Fort), limestone for the cement industry, and are famously known for their diamond deposits, particularly in Panna (Madhya Pradesh) and the historical Golkonda mines (associated with the Kollur Mine in the Krishna river valley).

  • 5) Gondwana Rock System:

    • Formation: These rocks were formed during the Carboniferous to Jurassic periods (approx. 300 to 180 million years ago) and were deposited in synclinal troughs or basins on the peninsular shield. The name is derived from the Gond tribe of central India.
    • Economic Significance: The Gondwana system is paramount for its energy resources, as it contains about 98% of India’s coal reserves. The coal is primarily bituminous.
    • Distribution: They are found in faulted troughs in major river valleys: Damodar Valley (Jharia, Raniganj), Mahanadi Valley (Talcher), Godavari Valley (Singareni), and Son Valley.

  • 6) Deccan Trap Formations:

    • Formation: During the late Cretaceous period (around 66 million years ago), massive fissure eruptions of basaltic lava occurred, covering a vast area of peninsular India. This multi-layered lava formation is known as the Deccan Traps.
    • Natural Resource Potential:
      • Black Soil: The weathering of this basaltic rock has produced fertile black soil (regur), which is excellent for cotton cultivation.
      • Energy: The plateau’s elevation and terrain offer potential for wind and hydro-electric energy.
      • Water: The vesicular and amygdaloidal nature of the basalt makes it a good aquifer, holding significant groundwater.
      • Bauxite is also found in some lateritic cappings over the traps.

  • 7) Tertiary Rock Formations:

    • Formation: These formations (from about 66 to 2.6 million years ago) are primarily associated with the uplift of the Himalayas. The collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates led to the folding of Tethys Sea sediments.
    • Characteristics: These are geologically young and are all sedimentary in nature. They contain important mineral resources like petroleum and natural gas (found in Assam, Gujarat, and offshore regions) and ‘tertiary coal’ (lignite).
    • Distribution: They are found along the Himalayan belt. Limestone is found in formations like the Pir Panjal range, and in the foredeep regions like the Dun Valley and the Shivaliks.

  • 8) Quaternary Rock Formations:

    • Formation: These are the most recent formations (last 2.6 million years to the present), consisting mainly of unconsolidated sediments.
    • Distribution & Significance: They form the vast Indo-Gangetic Plains (alluvium), the coastal plains, and the Thar desert. While they lack metallic minerals, these deposits form India’s most fertile alluvial soils, the backbone of its agriculture. Recent explorations have indicated potential for oil and gas (e.g., Assam-Arakan region) and shale gas. The recent discovery of Lithium reserves in Jammu and Kashmir (Reasi district) is in rocks that are part of the Himalayan geology, though the specific deposits are within older rock formations exposed during the Tertiary and Quaternary periods.

Mineral Distribution in India

  • Iron Ore:
    • Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: High-grade haematite ore from mines in Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj, Odisha) and the adjoining Singhbhum district of Jharkhand (Noamundi).
    • Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt (Chhattisgarh-Maharashtra): Super high-grade haematite ore from the famous Bailadila range in Bastar, Chhattisgarh.
    • Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru Belt (Karnataka): Large reserves, with the Kudremukh mines (now closed for environmental reasons) being a major export-oriented unit. The Bababudan Hills are historically significant.
  • Bauxite:
    • Major deposits are found in the Amarkantak plateau (MP-Chhattisgarh), Maikal hills, and the plateau regions of Jharkhand (Ranchi, Palamu) and Odisha. Other states include Maharashtra (Kolaba), Karnataka (Belgaon), and Tamil Nadu (Shevaroy Hills).
  • Copper:
    • Khetri Mines (Rajasthan): Located in the Jhunjhunu district, these mines are historically significant, with evidence of copper mining dating back to the Harappan Civilization. Other areas in Rajasthan include Alwar and Udaipur.
    • Malanjkhand Copper Belt (Madhya Pradesh): In the Balaghat district, this is the single largest copper deposit in India.
    • Singhbhum District (Jharkhand).
  • Mica:
    • India is a leading producer of sheet mica. The main belt is in the Chota Nagpur Plateau, covering Hazaribagh, Koderma, and Giridih in Jharkhand. Other regions include Nellore in Andhra Pradesh (Gudur mica belt) and Bhilwara in Rajasthan. Muscovite (ruby mica) and Biotite are the main types.
  • Shale Gas Basins (Potential): Cambay (Gujarat), Assam-Arakan, Gondwana (Damodar Valley), Krishna-Godavari, Cauvery, and the Indo-Gangetic basin.
  • Uranium: Occurrences are found in the Cuddapah basin (Tummalapalle, AP), Bhima basin (Karnataka), Chhattisgarh basin, Aravalli region (Rajasthan), Singhbhum Shear Zone (Jaduguda, Jharkhand), and parts of Meghalaya.
  • Thorium:
    • Source: India has one of the world’s largest reserves of Thorium, primarily found in the mineral Monazite.
    • Distribution: Monazite is found in placer deposits (beach sands) along the coasts of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha. These sands also contain other rare earth elements and titanium minerals like Ilmenite and Rutile.
  • Major vs. Minor Minerals:
    • This classification is based on the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.
    • Major Minerals: Specified in the First Schedule of the Act. The regulatory and administrative powers rest with the Central Government. Examples: Coal, Lignite, iron ore, gold, copper, lead, zinc, manganese, uranium, etc.
    • Minor Minerals: Defined as building stones, gravel, ordinary clay, ordinary sand etc. and any other mineral which the Central Government may declare. The regulatory and administrative powers rest with the respective State Governments. This allows states to make rules for granting mineral concessions and collecting revenue. Examples: Marble, Bentonite, Slate, etc.

ISSUES DUE TO MINING

Mining, while crucial for economic development, poses significant multi-dimensional challenges if not managed sustainably.

  • Environmental Issues:

    • Pollution: Open-cast mining releases large quantities of dust and particulate matter, causing severe air pollution. Mine drainage and seepage of chemicals (like cyanide in gold mining or sulphuric acid from coal mines) contaminate surface and groundwater (water pollution). Dumping of overburden and tailings leads to soil and land degradation.
    • Ecological Damage: Large-scale deforestation is required to clear land for mines, leading to habitat loss and a decline in biodiversity. Mining activities can alter landscapes permanently and destabilize slopes, increasing the risk of landslides.

  • Economic Issues:

    • Inefficiency: Use of outdated technology and unscientific mining methods leads to low productivity and wastage of resources. This is particularly seen in the case of “slaughter mining” where only the best quality ore is extracted, leaving the rest.
    • Revenue Leakage: Issues like improper management of auctions for mineral blocks (as highlighted in past “Coalgate” controversies), under-reporting of production, and illegal mining lead to significant loss of revenue for the exchequer.

  • Administrative Issues:

    • Illegal Mining: This is a pervasive problem, involving mining outside the leased area, extracting more than the permitted quantity, and illegal transportation. This “sand mafia” or “coal mafia” often operates with political and administrative collusion.
    • Regulatory Failure: Weak monitoring and enforcement mechanisms fail to curb illegal activities and ensure compliance with environmental and safety norms.
    • Infrastructure Strain: Overloaded trucks transporting minerals cause premature damage to roads and bridges.
    • Land Acquisition: Acquiring land for mining is fraught with challenges, including conflicts with local communities, inadequate compensation, and complex rehabilitation and resettlement (R&R) processes.

  • Social Issues:

    • Displacement: Mining projects often lead to the large-scale displacement of communities, particularly tribal populations who have deep cultural and economic ties to the land and forests (as per the Forest Rights Act, 2006).
    • Health Crises: Miners and nearby populations suffer from serious occupational health hazards and diseases like silicosis, asbestosis, and black lung disease. Water and soil contamination can lead to widespread public health problems.
    • Livelihood Loss & Conflict: Loss of traditional livelihoods based on agriculture and forests can lead to social unrest and migration.

  • Technology Issues:

    • Outdated Methods: Many small-scale mines in India still use antiquated and unsafe methods.
    • Rat-hole Mining: This is a hazardous and unscientific method used primarily in Meghalaya to extract thin seams of coal. It involves digging small, narrow tunnels, which are prone to collapse and flooding, leading to frequent accidents and deaths. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) banned it in 2014 due to its environmental and safety risks.

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

Manufacturing involves the processing of raw materials into finished goods through the use of machinery, labor, and power, typically in a factory setting for large-scale production of standardized products.

  • Locational Factors: The decision of where to locate a factory is influenced by a combination of geographical and economic factors, as theorized by geographers like Alfred Weber in his “Theory of the Location of Industries” (1909), which emphasized minimizing transportation and labor costs.

    • 1) Raw Material: Industries using weight-losing raw materials (e.g., sugar industry, where sugarcane loses weight after processing) tend to locate near the source of the material to minimize transport costs. Industries using non-weight-losing materials (e.g., cotton textile) have more locational flexibility. Perishability (e.g., food processing) is another critical factor.
    • 2) Market: Proximity to the market is crucial for industries producing fragile goods (e.g., glass) or those where transport costs of the final product are high. A large market ensures demand and potential for economies of scale.
    • 3) Labour: The availability of a skilled, unskilled, and affordable workforce is a major determinant. Some industries are labor-intensive (e.g., garments), while others are capital-intensive.
    • 4) Energy/Power: Industries with high energy consumption, like aluminum smelting, are often located near sources of cheap and reliable power, such as hydroelectric plants.
    • 5) Infrastructure: A well-developed network of transportation (roads, railways, ports), communication, and banking facilities is essential for the efficient movement of goods and capital.
    • 6) Capital: The availability of investment capital is a prerequisite for establishing any large-scale industry.
    • 7) Government Policies: Government incentives such as tax breaks, subsidies, provision of land in Special Economic Zones (SEZs), liberal labor laws, and favorable trade policies play a significant role in influencing industrial location.

  • Footloose Industry:

    • These industries are not tied to any specific location. Their raw materials are often small, high-value components (e.g., microchips) that are not weight-losing and can be transported easily. They rely more on skilled labor and connectivity than on proximity to raw materials or markets.
    • Example: Information Technology (IT), software development, diamond processing, and electronics assembly.

COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY

  • Significance: It is one of the oldest and largest industries in India. It is a major agro-based industry, providing large-scale employment to farmers, ginners, spinners, weavers, and others. It holds immense cultural and historical significance, from the handwoven fabrics of ancient India to its role in the Swadeshi movement.
  • Types of Cotton Industries:
    • a) Handlooms: The decentralized sector using traditional looms operated manually. It is highly labor-intensive and known for producing unique, high-value fabrics like Khadi.
    • b) Power looms: Uses looms operated by electric power. This sector bridges the gap between the mill and handloom sectors, and accounts for a significant share of fabric production.
    • c) Cotton Mills: The organized sector with large-scale spinning and weaving units, characterized by high capital investment and mechanization.
  • Locational Factors:
    • Raw Material: Cotton is a pure, non-weight-losing raw material, meaning 1 ton of raw cotton produces nearly 1 ton of thread. This gives the industry flexibility in location, allowing it to be located near raw material sources or markets. Early concentration was in the black soil regions of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
    • Market: This has become the most dominant factor. Proximity to urban centers provides both a market for finished goods and a labor supply.
    • Other Factors: A humid climate (helps prevent yarn from breaking), reliable power supply, cheap labor, and good transport networks are also crucial.
  • Historical Evolution and Distribution:
    • The first successful modern cotton textile mill, the Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company, was established in 1854 in Bombay (now Mumbai).
    • Initial Concentration: The industry was initially concentrated in the cotton-growing belt of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Cities like Mumbai, Ahmedabad (Manchester of India), Solapur, and Nagpur became major centers due to the availability of raw cotton, capital from Parsi and Gujarati traders, port facilities for importing machinery, and a humid climate.
    • Southward Shift: In the post-independence period, the industry began to shift and disperse to other regions, particularly to the south.
      • Coimbatore emerged as the Manchester of South India, with Tirupur becoming a major hub for cotton knitwear.
      • Reasons for the shift: Availability of abundant and cheap labor, proximity to ports, development of hydroelectric power projects providing cheap electricity, and a large local market.
    • Other Regions: The industry also developed in the north, particularly in Kanpur, due to the large market of the Gangetic plains. Other centers include Varanasi, Agra, and Bhopal.
  • Problems of the Cotton Textile Industry:
    • Raw Material: Fluctuations in the production of raw cotton and poor quality of domestic cotton affect productivity. Over-dependence on a few varieties like Bt Cotton creates agronomic and ecological risks.
    • Technology: Much of the machinery in mills is outdated, leading to low productivity and high costs. The decentralized power loom and handloom sectors face severe technological obsolescence.
    • Competition: The industry faces stiff competition from synthetic fibers (technical textiles) which are often cheaper and more durable. It also faces intense international competition from countries like Bangladesh, Vietnam, and China, which benefit from cheaper labor and favorable trade agreements.
    • Fragmentation: The industry is highly fragmented, particularly in the weaving and processing sectors, which prevents economies of scale.

Prelims Pointers

  • Ore of Manganese: Pyrolusite (MnO₂)
  • Ore of Copper: Chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂)
  • Ore of Aluminum: Bauxite
  • Ore of Tin: Cassiterite (SnO₂)
  • Highest quality iron ore: Magnetite (Fe₃O₄), black in colour, found in igneous rocks.
  • Most used industrial iron ore: Haematite (Fe₂O₃), red in colour, found in sedimentary rocks.
  • Ranks of Coal (Highest to Lowest Carbon): Anthracite > Bituminous > Lignite > Peat.
  • Oldest Rock Formations in India: Archean System (azoic, unfossiliferous).
  • Most metalliferous rock system in India: Dharwar System (rich in iron, manganese, gold).
  • Diamond-bearing rock system in India: Vindhyan System (Panna, Golkonda).
  • Major coal-bearing rock system in India: Gondwana System (contains 98% of India’s coal).
  • Rock system formed by volcanic eruption: Deccan Traps (led to Black Soil formation).
  • Petroleum and Natural Gas are found in: Tertiary rock formations.
  • Rat-hole mining is associated with coal extraction in Meghalaya.
  • Oldest operating oil field in India: Digboi, Assam.
  • Largest oil and gas producing field in India: Mumbai High (offshore).
  • Technology for Shale Gas extraction: Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking).
  • Manchester of India: Ahmedabad.
  • Manchester of South India: Coimbatore.
  • Khetri mines in Rajasthan are famous for: Copper.
  • Jaduguda mines in Jharkhand are famous for: Uranium.
  • Monazite sands in India are a major source of Thorium.
  • The Central Government regulates Major Minerals, while State Governments regulate Minor Minerals.
  • The Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company, the first successful cotton mill, was established in 1854.

Mains Insights

MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES (GS-I, GS-III)

  • Resource Distribution and Regional Disparity (GS-I): The uneven distribution of mineral resources in India, heavily concentrated in the Peninsular Plateau (Chota Nagpur Plateau region), has led to significant regional imbalances. While these regions are resource-rich (e.g., Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh), they often lag in human development indices. This paradox is often termed the ‘Resource Curse,’ where mineral wealth fails to translate into prosperity for the local population due to issues of governance, revenue sharing, and displacement.
  • Strategic Importance of Minerals (GS-III): Control over minerals like Uranium, Thorium, and Lithium is vital for India’s strategic autonomy in nuclear energy and emerging technologies (EV batteries, electronics). India’s vast Thorium reserves form the basis of its three-stage nuclear power programme, aiming for long-term energy security. The recent discovery of Lithium in J&K is a significant step towards reducing import dependency on China.
  • Energy Transition and Fossil Fuels (GS-III): While India is committed to renewable energy (as per its Nationally Determined Contributions - NDCs), its energy security remains heavily dependent on coal, which fuels over half of its electricity generation. The challenge lies in balancing the immediate energy demands for economic growth with the long-term goal of decarbonization. This involves improving the efficiency of coal-based power plants, investing in clean coal technologies, and simultaneously accelerating the shift to solar, wind, and nuclear power.

ISSUES DUE TO MINING (GS-III, GS-IV)

  • Environment vs. Development Debate (GS-III): Mining is a classic example of this conflict. While essential for industrial raw materials and economic growth, its environmental footprint is immense. Policy frameworks like the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) aim to mitigate this, but their effectiveness is often debated due to dilutions and poor implementation. The key is to enforce the principles of Sustainable Development, integrating environmental safeguards and local community welfare into the mining process from the outset.
  • Governance and Administrative Challenges (GS-III): The problem of illegal mining highlights severe governance deficits, including corruption, weak regulatory oversight, and a nexus between politicians, bureaucrats, and mining mafias. Reforms like the MMDR (Amendment) Act, 2015, which introduced transparent auctioning of mineral blocks, and the use of technology (satellite imagery for monitoring) are steps to address these issues. The establishment of District Mineral Foundations (DMFs), funded by contributions from miners, is a mechanism to ensure that mining revenues benefit the local affected communities.
  • Ethical and Social Dimensions (GS-IV, GS-I): The displacement of tribal communities from their ancestral lands for mining projects raises profound ethical questions about justice, equity, and the rights of indigenous people (violating Schedule V provisions and the PESA Act, 1996). Issues like the lack of fair compensation, forced rehabilitation, and destruction of cultural heritage create a crisis of trust. The case of ‘rat-hole mining’ brings forth the ethical dilemma of livelihood versus life, where impoverished people are forced into extremely hazardous work due to a lack of other opportunities, highlighting state failure in providing sustainable livelihoods.

MANUFACTURING AND INDUSTRIAL LOCATION (GS-III)

  • Evolution of Locational Factors: Historically, industrial location was dictated by primary factors like raw materials and energy (e.g., Jamshedpur for steel). In the contemporary globalized economy, tertiary factors like government policies (SEZs), access to skilled human capital, R&D infrastructure, and global supply chain logistics have become more dominant. The rise of footloose industries like IT and electronics exemplifies this shift from material-centric to knowledge-centric location decisions.
  • Challenges in India’s Manufacturing Sector: The Cotton Textile industry’s problems are symptomatic of broader challenges in Indian manufacturing: technological obsolescence, lack of economies of scale, infrastructural bottlenecks, and stiff international competition. Initiatives like ‘Make in India’ and the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme aim to address these issues by promoting domestic manufacturing, encouraging technology adoption, and integrating India into global value chains.
  • Industrial Corridors and Economic Growth: The government’s strategy of developing dedicated industrial corridors (e.g., Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor) is an application of locational theory on a macro scale. By creating an ecosystem of world-class infrastructure (transport, power, logistics) and concentrating industries in planned clusters, the aim is to reduce logistical costs, enhance efficiency, and create new manufacturing hubs, thereby driving economic growth and employment.

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