GS Notes

1.2.2 - Medieval India Notes 01

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Elaborate Notes

Imperial Cholas (c. 9th - 13th Century A.D.)

  • Political Context and Rise:

    • Following the Sangam Age (c. 300 B.C. - 300 A.D.), the Cholas faded into obscurity, existing as minor chieftains. The period from the 4th to the 9th century in South India was dominated by the Pallavas of Kanchi and, to a lesser extent, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.
    • The resurgence of Chola power began in the mid-9th century. The socio-religious landscape was being transformed by the Bhakti movement, spearheaded by the Shaivaite Nayanars and Vaishnavite Alvars. This movement fostered a strong sense of Tamil cultural and religious identity, creating a fertile ground for a new, powerful Tamil dynasty.
    • The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya (c. 850-871 A.D.). Initially a feudatory of the Pallavas, he seized the opportune moment of conflict between the Pallavas and Pandyas to capture the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyars, a local clan. He established Thanjavur (Tanjore) as his capital, laying the foundation for a future empire.

  • Consolidation and Zenith:

    • Early rulers like Parantaka I (907-955 A.D.) consolidated Chola power by defeating the Pandyas and the ruler of Sri Lanka. The famous Uttaramerur inscriptions, detailing the functioning of the local village assembly (Sabha), belong to his reign.
    • The empire reached its apex under two of its greatest rulers:
      1. Rajaraja I (985-1014 A.D.):
        • Originally named Arumolivarman, he was a brilliant military strategist and administrator.
        • Conquests: He established Chola supremacy over South India by defeating the Chera navy at Kandalur Salai, subjugating the Pandyas, and conquering the Gangas of Mysore and the Vengi kingdom. His most significant overseas achievement was the annexation of northern Sri Lanka, which was renamed Mummadicholamandalam. He also launched a naval expedition that conquered the Maldives, demonstrating the Cholas’ formidable naval capacity.
        • Administration: He initiated a systematic land survey and assessment project, which streamlined revenue collection and strengthened central control. This earned him the title Ulgadala Perumal (“the great one who measured the earth”).
        • Architecture: His reign is immortalized by the construction of the Rajarajesvara Temple (now known as the Brihadeswara Temple) in Thanjavur, completed around 1010 A.D. This temple, a masterpiece of Dravidian architecture, served not just as a religious centre but also as a hub of economic and social activity.
      2. Rajendra I (1014-1044 A.D.):
        • Son of Rajaraja I, he was an even more ambitious conqueror. He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka, bringing the entire island under Chola rule.
        • Northern Expedition: His most audacious campaign was a military expedition to North India around 1022-23 A.D. His army marched through Orissa, southern Kosala, and Bengal, defeating several rulers, including the Pala king Mahipala I. To commemorate this victory, he assumed the title Gangaikonda (“the conqueror of the Ganga”).
        • New Capital: He established a new capital named Gangaikondacholapuram (“the city of the Chola who conquered the Ganga”) near the mouth of the Kaveri, adorned with a magnificent temple similar to the Brihadeswara Temple.
        • Naval Expedition to Srivijaya: Around 1025 A.D., he launched an unprecedented naval expedition against the Srivijaya kingdom (controlling the Malay peninsula, Java, and Sumatra). The campaign was likely motivated by a desire to control the lucrative maritime trade route to China. This victory earned him the title Kadaramkondan (“conqueror of Kadaram,” modern-day Kedah in Malaysia).
        • His patronage of learning earned him the title Pandita Chola.

  • Decline and Successor States:

    • Later Chola rulers like Kulottunga I (1070-1122 A.D.) managed to maintain the empire’s prestige. Kulottunga I is celebrated in the Tamil epic Kalingattupparani, written by his court poet Jayamkondar, which chronicles his victory in the Kalinga war.
    • However, by the late 12th and early 13th centuries, the Chola empire began to disintegrate due to the rise of feudatories and renewed challenges from the Pandyas and Hoysalas.
    • The last Chola king, Rajendra III, was defeated by the Pandyan ruler Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I in 1279 A.D., marking the end of the Chola dynasty. In its place, powerful regional kingdoms like the Pandyas of Madurai, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, and the Kakatiyas of Warangal rose to prominence.

  • Chola Administration:

    • Central Administration: The king was the pivot of the administration, assisted by a council of ministers. The transfer of power was often symbolized by the handing over of the Sengol, a sceptre derived from the Tamil word Semmai (righteousness), signifying the duty to rule justly. The Cholas actively patronized Brahmins by granting them tax-free villages known as Brahmadeyas.
    • Administrative Divisions: The empire (Rajyam) was systematically divided for administrative efficiency:
      • Mandalams (Provinces)
      • Valanadus or Kottams (sub-divisions within a Mandalam)
      • Nadus (groups of villages)
      • Ur (Village), the basic unit.
    • Local Self-Government: This was a hallmark of Chola rule. The autonomy granted to village assemblies is well-documented in numerous inscriptions.
      • Ur: A general assembly of the residents in non-Brahmadeya villages, primarily composed of land-owning farmers.
      • Sabha (or Mahasabha): A more formal and exclusive assembly of adult male Brahmin members in Brahmadeya villages. The Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka I give a detailed account of the functioning of the Sabha, including the constitution of various committees (variyams) responsible for gardens, irrigation, justice, etc., and the method of election through a lot system known as kudavolai (pot-ticket).
      • Nagaram: An assembly of merchants and traders, typically found in trade centres, which managed commercial affairs.

  • Economy, Society, and Religion:

    • Economy: The economy was primarily agrarian. Land revenue was the state’s main income source. The tax paid by cultivators was known as Kudimai. The Cholas invested heavily in irrigation, creating an intricate network of canals (vativaikkal) and tanks. A tax called Eriayam was collected for the maintenance of irrigation tanks. During the Pallava and Chola periods, a special land grant, Eripatti, was revenue set aside specifically for this purpose.
    • Society: The caste system was deeply entrenched. The condition of the ‘untouchables’ (Paraiyars) was often poor. A unique feature of Chola society was the horizontal division of castes into two broad groupings:
      • Valangai (Right-hand castes): Primarily agricultural and trading groups.
      • Idangai (Left-hand castes): Primarily artisans and craftspeople. These divisions often led to social tensions and conflicts.
    • Religion: The Chola rulers were devout Shaivites, but they were tolerant of other faiths. Vaishnavism also flourished. This period saw the crystallisation of the Shaiva Siddhanta school of philosophy, whose foundational text, the Sivagnana Bodham, was composed by Meikandar.
    • Art and Literature: The Dravidian style of temple architecture reached its pinnacle under the Cholas. Apart from grand temples, the Cholas are renowned for their exquisite bronze sculptures, most famously the Nataraja (dancing Shiva), which is considered a masterpiece of world art. In literature, the period is noted for the composition of the Kamban Ramayana (Ramavataram) in Tamil by the poet Kamban.

Sources for the Study of the Delhi Sultanate

  • The history of the Delhi Sultanate is reconstructed from a variety of sources, including court chronicles, travelers’ accounts, and Sufi literature.
  • Chachnama: Originally an Arabic text, later translated into Persian. It is the primary historical source for the history of Sindh, particularly the Arab conquest led by Muhammad bin Qasim in 712 A.D.
  • Al-Biruni (c. 973-1048 A.D.):
    • A Persian polymath from Khwarazm (modern Uzbekistan), he accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni to India.
    • His seminal work, Kitab-ul-Hind or Tahqiq-i-Hind (Researches on India), written in Arabic, is an encyclopedic account of Indian society, religion, philosophy, sciences, and customs. It is considered a remarkably objective and scholarly work for its time, based on his study of Sanskrit texts and interactions with Indian scholars.
  • Amir Khusrau (1253-1325 A.D.):
    • A versatile poet, musician, and scholar who served in the courts of several Delhi Sultans. Known as the Tuti-e-Hind (Parrot of India).
    • He was not a formal historian, but his poetic and prose works contain valuable historical information. His major works include Khazain-ul-Futuh (“The Treasures of Victory”), which details the conquests of Alauddin Khilji, and Miftah-ul-Futuh (“Key to the Victories”), about the campaigns of Jalaluddin Khilji. He is credited with pioneering new musical forms like qawwali.
  • Ziauddin Barani (1285–1357 A.D.):
    • A historian and political theorist who wrote during the reigns of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
    • His Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi is a crucial account of the Sultanate from the reign of Balban to the early years of Firuz Shah Tughlaq. His other major work, Fatwa-i-Jahandari (“Rulings on Worldly Government”), is a work on political theory that lays out his ideal of a Muslim ruler.
  • Futuhat-i-Firuzshahi: The autobiography of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq, providing an insight into his administrative and religious policies from his own perspective.
  • Ibn Battuta (1304–1369 A.D.):
    • A famous Moroccan traveler who journeyed across Africa and Asia. He arrived in India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and served as a qazi (judge) in Delhi for several years.
    • His travelogue, the Rihla (“The Journey”), offers a rich, firsthand account of the socio-political conditions, customs, trade, and administration of the Tughlaq era. His outsider’s perspective provides a valuable counterpoint to the official court chronicles.
  • Firishta (1560-1620 A.D.):
    • His work, Tarikh-i-Firishta (also known as Gulshan-i-Ibrahimi), is a comprehensive history of India, covering not just the Delhi Sultanate but also the regional kingdoms of the Deccan and other parts of India. Though written much later, it compiled information from many earlier, now-lost sources.

Prelims Pointers

  • Founder of Imperial Cholas: Vijayalaya.
  • Capital: Thanjavur (Tanjore), later Gangaikondacholapuram.
  • Rajaraja I’s original name: Arumolivarman.
  • Rajaraja I’s title for land survey: Ulgadala Perumal.
  • Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur: Built by Rajaraja I around 1010 A.D.
  • Rajendra I’s titles: Gangaikonda, Kadaramkondan, Pandita Chola.
  • Last Chola ruler: Rajendra III (defeated in 1279 A.D.).
  • Symbol for transfer of power: Sengol.
  • Administrative Units: Mandalam (province) → Valanadu → Nadu → Ur (village).
  • Chola Army Ranks: Perundanam (upper) and Sirudanam (lower).
  • Village Assemblies: Ur (general), Sabha (Brahmin), Nagaram (merchant).
  • Source for Sabha’s functioning: Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka I.
  • Chola election system: Kudavolai (pot-ticket system).
  • Chola ruler who abolished tolls: Kulottunga I (abolished sungam).
  • Land revenue tax paid by cultivators: Kudimai.
  • Irrigation tax: Eriayam.
  • Land for maintenance of irrigation tanks: Eripatti.
  • Social Divisions: Valangai (right-hand) and Idangai (left-hand).
  • Shaiva Siddhanta philosophy text: Sivagnana Bodham by Meikandar.
  • Kalingattupparani author: Jayamkondar (court poet of Kulottunga I).
  • Kitab-ul-Hind author: Al-Biruni.
  • Rihla author: Ibn Battuta (from Morocco).
  • Known as ‘Tuti-e-Hind’: Amir Khusrau.
  • Barani’s historical work: Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi.
  • Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s autobiography: Futuhat-i-Firuzshahi.

Mains Insights

  1. The Nature of the Chola State: A Historiographical Debate

    • Centralized Empire View: Championed by scholars like K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, this view portrays the Chola state as a highly centralized, bureaucratic empire. Evidence cited includes the king’s vast powers, an elaborate administrative structure (Mandalams, Valanadus), a standing army, and the systematic land revenue system initiated by Rajaraja I. The massive temple projects are also seen as instruments of royal power projection.
    • Segmentary State View: Proposed by Burton Stein, this model argues that the Chola state was a “segmentary” one. It suggests that the king had direct control only over a core area around the Kaveri delta, while his authority in the intermediate and peripheral zones was more ritualistic and symbolic than actual. Real power in these segments lay with local assemblies (Nadu) and chieftains. The numerous autonomous village assemblies are key evidence for this theory.
    • Analysis: The truth likely lies somewhere in between. The Chola state demonstrated features of both centralization (powerful military, revenue system) and significant local autonomy (village assemblies). It can be seen as a dynamic polity that balanced central authority with local self-governance, a model that proved effective for centuries.

  2. Chola Village Assemblies: A Model of Early Democracy?

    • Significance: The Chola village assemblies, particularly the Sabha detailed in the Uttaramerur inscriptions, represent a remarkable degree of organized local self-government in medieval India. They managed local resources, collected taxes, and dispensed justice, reducing the burden on the central administration.
    • Limitations: While impressive, calling them ‘democratic’ is an anachronism. Membership in the Sabha was restricted to land-owning Brahmin males with specific qualifications of age, wealth, and Vedic knowledge. This excluded a vast majority of the population, including women and lower castes. The kudavolai system, while a form of selection by lot, operated within this highly restricted group.
    • Conclusion: The assemblies were a sophisticated system of local administration by a rural elite, functioning under the overall suzerainty of the monarch. They were more an example of administrative decentralization than of popular democracy.

  3. Causes and Consequences of Chola Naval Expeditions

    • Causes: The Chola naval supremacy was driven by a combination of economic and political factors. The primary motivation for the expeditions to Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and especially Srivijaya was to control the lucrative maritime trade routes of the Indian Ocean, which connected India with Southeast Asia, China, and the Arab world. These routes were crucial for the trade of spices, textiles, and other high-value goods. The Srivijaya campaign may also have been a punitive action against piracy or Srivijaya’s attempts to monopolize the straits.
    • Consequences: These expeditions established Chola political hegemony over a vast maritime region, turning the Bay of Bengal into a “Chola Lake.” They facilitated the spread of Indian culture, art, and religion into Southeast Asia, contributing to the Indianization of the region. Economically, they secured immense wealth for the Chola empire, which funded its temple-building and military activities.

  4. Critical Evaluation of Medieval Historical Sources

    • Perspective and Bias: Sources for the Delhi Sultanate must be read critically. Court chronicles like Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi or Khusrau’s works were written under royal patronage and often aimed to legitimize the ruler’s actions, leading to exaggeration and omission. Barani, for instance, wrote from a perspective of orthodox Islamic theology, heavily criticising policies he deemed un-Islamic.
    • Outsider vs. Insider Accounts: Travelers’ accounts like Ibn Battuta’s Rihla provide a valuable external perspective, often recording details of daily life and society that court historians ignored. However, they can also contain inaccuracies due to the traveler’s limited understanding of local languages and customs.
    • Synthesis: A comprehensive understanding of the period requires synthesizing information from multiple types of sources. For example, literary accounts must be corroborated with epigraphic evidence (inscriptions), numismatics (coins), and archaeological findings to build a more accurate and nuanced historical narrative.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. (UPSC CSE 2023) With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as (a) capital cities (b) ports (c) centres of iron-and-steel making (d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras

    Answer: (b) ports. Poompuhar (Kaveripattinam) was a major Chola port. While this question refers to the Sangam age Cholas, it is highly relevant to the maritime context of the Imperial Cholas as well.

  2. (UPSC CSE 2022) The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new Circuit House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which of the following statements are correct regarding Somnath Temple?

    1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines.
    2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by Al-Biruni.
    3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of the present day temple) was done by President S. Radhakrishnan. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only. Statement 2 is relevant as Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind described the temple and its destruction by Mahmud of Ghazni, a key event preceding the Delhi Sultanate.

  3. (UPSC CSE 2022) With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts:

    1. Nettipakarana
    2. Parishishtaparvan
    3. Avadanasataka
    4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana Which of the above are Jaina texts? (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

    Answer: (b) 2 and 4 only. This question tests knowledge of ancient and medieval literature, similar to how a question could be framed on sources like Kalingattupparani or Kitab-ul-Hind.

  4. (UPSC CSE 2021) With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. Mitakshara was the civil law for upper castes and Dayabhaga was the civil law for lower castes.
    2. In the Mitakshara system, the sons can claim right to the property during the lifetime of the father, whereas in the Dayabhaga system, it is only after the death of the father that the sons can claim right to the property.
    3. The Mitakshara system deals with the matters related to the property held by male members only of a family, whereas the Dayabhaga system deals with the matters related to the property held by both male and female members of a family. Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only

    Answer: (b) 2 only. This question, though not directly on the Cholas, reflects the type of socio-legal questions UPSC asks from the medieval period, where understanding societal structures is key.

  5. (UPSC CSE 2019) With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs:

    1. Parivrajaka: Renunciant and Wanderer
    2. Shramana: Priest with a high status
    3. Upasaka: Lay follower of Buddhism Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (b) 1 and 3 only. This tests knowledge of ancient/medieval social and religious terms. Similar questions can be framed on Chola terms like Ur, Sabha, Valangai, and Idangai.

Mains

  1. ** (UPSC CSE 2022)** “The Chola village assemblies possessed a high degree of autonomy and played a crucial role in local administration.” Discuss. (15 marks, 250 words)

    Answer: The Chola period is distinguished by its remarkable system of local self-government, where village assemblies enjoyed significant autonomy. This system was a cornerstone of their administration, efficiently managing local affairs while operating under the overarching authority of the monarch. The nature and functioning of these assemblies are well-documented in numerous inscriptions, most notably the Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka I.

    Types of Village Assemblies:

    • Ur: The general assembly in non-brahmadeya villages, composed primarily of land-owning cultivators. It dealt with general village matters, including the maintenance of tanks and temples.
    • Sabha (or Mahasabha): A more formal and structured assembly found in brahmadeya (Brahmin-granted) villages. Membership was restricted to Brahmin males who met strict criteria of property ownership, age, and education in the Vedas.
    • Nagaram: An assembly of merchants and traders in commercial towns, responsible for the administration of markets and trade-related issues.

    Functioning and Autonomy:

    • Administrative Functions: These assemblies were responsible for collecting land revenue for the state, managing public lands, maintaining irrigation works (canals, tanks), and settling land disputes.
    • Committee System (Variyam): The Sabha operated through a sophisticated system of committees, each assigned specific tasks like the tank committee (eri-variyam), garden committee (totta-variyam), and justice committee.
    • Selection of Members: The Uttaramerur inscriptions detail the kudavolai (pot-ticket) system for selecting committee members. Names of eligible candidates were written on palm-leaf tickets, placed in a pot, and drawn by a young boy, ensuring a form of selection by lot among the qualified elite.
    • Financial Independence: The assemblies had the power to levy local taxes and raise resources for community projects, giving them a degree of financial autonomy.

    Role in Local Administration: The assemblies acted as a crucial link between the central government and the populace. By decentralizing administrative tasks, they ensured efficient local governance without overburdening the central bureaucracy. This balance of central oversight and local autonomy was key to the stability and longevity of the Chola empire. However, it is important to note that this autonomy was not absolute democracy; it was a system of governance by a local elite, operating within the framework of a powerful monarchy.

  2. Evaluate the significance of the Chola naval expeditions in the context of Indian maritime history. (15 marks, 250 words)

  3. Critically analyze the accounts of foreign travelers as a source for understanding the socio-political conditions of the Delhi Sultanate. (15 marks, 250 words)

  4. The Chola period was the high-water mark in the evolution of South Indian temple architecture. Illustrate with examples. (10 marks, 150 words)

  5. Discuss the debate surrounding the nature of the Chola state. Do you consider it a centralized empire or a segmentary state? Justify your position. (15 marks, 250 words)

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