GS Notes

1.2.2 - Medieval India Notes 02

32 min read

Elaborate Notes

Ghaznavid Empire

  • Origins and Rise of Mahmud of Ghazni: The Ghaznavid dynasty, of Turkic origin, was founded by Alptigin, a former slave of the Samanid Empire, in 962 AD in Ghazni (modern-day Afghanistan). His successor and son-in-law, Sabuktigin, consolidated the empire and was the first to make inroads into India, defeating the Hindu Shahi ruler Jaipala.
  • Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030 AD): Ascending the throne in 998 AD, Mahmud, son of Sabuktigin, transformed Ghazni into a formidable empire. He is documented to have invaded India 17 times between 1000 and 1027 AD.
    • Motivations: Historians debate his motives. Medieval Islamic chroniclers like Utbi in his Tarikh-i-Yamini portrayed him as a champion of Islam, an ‘idol-breaker’ (But-shikan). However, modern historians like Romila Thapar and Mohammad Habib argue that his primary motive was economic plunder to finance his Central Asian empire, with religious zeal being a justifying rhetoric. The wealth looted from India, particularly from temples which were repositories of immense riches, made Ghazni a center of art, culture, and architecture.
    • Major Campaigns:
      1. Against the Hindu Shahis: His initial campaigns were against the Hindu Shahi dynasty of Punjab. He defeated and captured Jaipala in the Battle of Peshawar (1001 AD). Jaipala, unable to bear the humiliation, immolated himself. His successor, Anandapala, organized a confederacy of Rajput rulers but was defeated in the Battle of Waihind (near Peshawar) in 1008 AD. The defeat of the Shahis removed a major obstacle to Mahmud’s incursions into the Gangetic valley.
      2. Plunder of North Indian Cities: Subsequent raids targeted prosperous temple towns. He plundered Nagarkot (1009 AD), Thanesar (1014 AD), Kannauj, and Mathura (1018 AD).
      3. The Somnath Expedition (1025 AD): His most famous campaign was the sack of the Somnath temple in Gujarat, then ruled by the Solanki king Bhima I. The raid resulted in the acquisition of immense treasure. The Persian scholar Al-Biruni, who accompanied Mahmud and wrote the treatise Kitab-ul-Hind (or Tahqiq-i-Hind), provides a detailed account of Indian society, sciences, and the socio-political conditions of the time.
      4. Final Campaign: His last Indian expedition in 1027 AD was against the Jats of the Sindh region, who had harassed his army during its return from Somnath.
  • Legacy and Decline: After Mahmud’s death in 1030 AD, the vast Ghaznavid Empire began to disintegrate due to weak successors and the rise of the Seljuk Turks. While his raids caused a significant drain of wealth and political instability in Northern India, they did not lead to the establishment of a permanent empire in India. However, they exposed the political and military weaknesses of the Indian kingdoms. Subsequent Turkish raids continued, but local resistance, such as the victory of Raja Suheldev of Shravasti over Mahmud’s nephew, Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud, near Bahraich (as mentioned in the 17th-century Persian text Mirat-i-Masudi), demonstrated that Indian rulers were capable of repelling them.

Rajput Kingdoms (c. 8th - 12th Century)

  • Origin Theories: The term ‘Rajput’ (from Sanskrit Rajaputra, meaning “son of a king”) came to denote a dominant warrior class in northern and western India. Their origins are debated.
    • Traditional Lineage: They claimed Kshatriya status, tracing their ancestry to the mythological solar (Suryavanshi) and lunar (Chandravanshi) dynasties.
    • Agnikula Theory: As mentioned in the later versions of the epic poem Prithviraj Raso attributed to Chand Bardai, four clans – the Pratiharas, Chauhans (Chahamanas), Solankis (Chaulukyas), and Paramaras – were believed to have originated from a sacrificial fire pit (agnikunda) at Mount Abu. Historians like D. R. Bhandarkar have suggested this might indicate a process of purification and assimilation of foreign elements (like the Hunas) into Hindu society. However, this theory is largely considered a mythological construct to grant legitimacy.
  • Major Rajput Kingdoms:
    • Tomars of Delhi: Anangpal Tomara is credited with founding the city of Dhillika (modern Delhi) in the 11th century. The famous Iron Pillar was also relocated to its current site by him. They were in a constant struggle for supremacy with the Gahadavalas and Chauhans, eventually losing Delhi to the Chauhans in the mid-12th century.
    • Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Ajmer:
      • They initially ruled from Shakambhari (Sambhar). Ajay Raj founded the city of Ajmer in the early 12th century.
      • Vigraharaja IV (c. 1150-1164 AD): A powerful ruler who expanded the kingdom significantly, capturing Delhi from the Tomars. He was a great patron of learning and built a Sanskrit college, the Saraswati Kanthabharan Mahavidyalaya, in Ajmer. This structure was later demolished by Qutb-ud-din Aibak and converted into the Adhai Din ka Jhopra mosque. Fragments of the Sanskrit play Harikeli Nataka, authored by Vigraharaja himself, are inscribed on its walls.
      • Prithviraj III (Prithviraj Chauhan) (c. 1178-1192 AD): The most celebrated Chauhan ruler, whose exploits are romanticized in the Prithviraj Raso. His expansionist policies brought him into conflict with neighbouring kingdoms, most notably the Gahadavalas of Kannauj and the Ghurids under Muhammad Ghori, leading to the pivotal Battles of Tarain.
    • Gahadavalas of Kannauj:
      • They dominated the Gangetic plains with capitals at Kanyakubja (Kannauj) and Varanasi.
      • Govindachandra (c. 1114-1154 AD): The most powerful ruler of this dynasty, he successfully defended his kingdom against Ghaznavid raids and expanded his territory.
      • Jaichand (Jayachandra): The last powerful ruler, famous in folklore as Prithviraj Chauhan’s rival. He was defeated and killed by Muhammad Ghori’s forces, led by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, at the Battle of Chandawar in 1194 AD.
    • Paramaras of Malwa:
      • Originally feudatories of the Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas, they established an independent kingdom with their capital at Dhara.
      • Bhoja (c. 1010-1055 AD): The most illustrious ruler of this dynasty, Raja Bhoj was a polymath and a military genius. He formed an alliance with Rajendra Chola against the Western Chalukyas. He assumed titles like Paramesvara-Parambhattaraka. A prolific writer, he is credited with authoring works on a wide range of subjects, including architecture (Samarangana Sutradhara), grammar, astronomy, and yoga. He founded the city of Bhojpur and constructed the Bhojeshwar temple dedicated to Shiva near Bhopal.
    • Chandellas of Bundelkhand:
      • Starting as feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Nannuka founded the dynasty in the 9th century in the Jejakabhukti region (Bundelkhand).
      • Under rulers like Yashovarman and Dhanga, they became a sovereign power. Their capital was Khajuraho, renowned for its magnificent temples built in the Nagara style of architecture. The Kandariya Mahadeva temple, built during the reign of Vidyadhara (c. 1017-1029 AD), represents the zenith of this architectural style. Vidyadhara is also noted for having resisted Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasion.
      • The last notable ruler was Paramardi (Parmal), who was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan in 1182 AD. The kingdom was eventually annexed by the Delhi Sultanate.
    • Solankis (Chaulukyas) of Gujarat:
      • Founded by Mularaja I around 942 AD with the capital at Anahilapataka (Patan).
      • Bhima I (c. 1022-1064 AD): It was during his reign that Mahmud of Ghazni sacked the Somnath temple. After the raid, Bhima I rebuilt the temple. He also constructed the magnificent Sun Temple at Modhera.
      • His queen, Udayamati, commissioned the construction of the Rani-ki-Vav (Queen’s Stepwell) in Patan in his memory. This intricately carved stepwell is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Turkish Conquest of India

  • Rise of the Ghurids: Following the decline of the Ghaznavids, the Ghurid dynasty rose to power in the Ghur region of central Afghanistan. In 1173 AD, Muizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam (popularly known as Muhammad Ghori) ascended the throne of Ghazni. Unlike Mahmud, whose goal was plunder, Ghori’s ambition was to establish a permanent empire in India.
  • Ghori’s Campaigns:
    • Initial Defeat: His first major campaign against a powerful Indian kingdom in 1178 AD was a disastrous failure. He was decisively defeated by the Solanki forces at the Battle of Kayadara/Kasarada (near Mount Abu). The army was led by the regent queen Naiki Devi, mother of the young king Mularaja II (the summary refers to him as Bal Mulraj). This defeat forced Ghori to change his route of invasion from Gujarat/Sindh to Punjab.
    • Consolidation in Punjab: He subsequently focused on consolidating his power in Punjab, capturing Peshawar, Lahore, and Sialkot, which brought him into direct conflict with the Chauhans of Ajmer and Delhi.
    • First Battle of Tarain (1191 AD): Fought near modern-day Bhatinda over the fortress of Tabarhind. The Ghurid army, led by Muhammad Ghori, was comprehensively defeated by the Rajput forces under Prithviraj Chauhan. Ghori was severely wounded and his army was routed. Prithviraj, however, did not pursue the retreating army, a decision seen by many historians like Satish Chandra as a major strategic error.
    • Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD): Ghori returned a year later with a larger, better-organized army of 120,000 men. He employed superior tactics, including the use of mounted archers and a feigned retreat strategy. The Rajput forces were overwhelmed. Prithviraj was captured and, according to most accounts, executed. This battle is considered a turning point in Indian history as it opened the Gangetic plains to Turkish conquest.
  • Conquests by Ghori’s Generals:
    • Qutb-ud-din Aibak: Ghori appointed his trusted slave general, Aibak, as the governor of his Indian possessions. Aibak consolidated the gains by capturing Delhi and Ajmer. He later led campaigns that resulted in the conquest of Kannauj (after defeating Jaichand at Chandawar in 1194 AD), parts of Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
    • Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji: Another of Ghori’s commanders, he led expeditions into eastern India. He overran Bihar and Bengal (c. 1202-1203 AD), defeating the Sena king, Lakshmanasena. He is infamously credited with the destruction of the great Buddhist universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila, a severe blow to traditional Indian learning. His ambitious Tibet expedition, however, ended in disaster when he was defeated by the ruler of Kamarupa (Assam), believed to be Raja Prithu.
  • End of Ghori and Establishment of the Sultanate: In 1206 AD, while returning to Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori was assassinated near the Indus River, allegedly by Khokhar tribesmen from Punjab. Upon his death, his vast empire fragmented. Qutb-ud-din Aibak seized the opportunity, severed ties with Ghazni, and declared himself the independent ruler of the Indian territories, laying the foundation for the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 AD with Lahore as his initial capital.

Delhi Sultanate: The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (1206-1290)

The term ‘Mamluk’ is an Arabic word for a “slave owned by the king.” The rulers of this dynasty were either slaves or descendants of slaves.

  • Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210 AD):
    • He began his rule from Lahore to prevent challenges from other Ghurid commanders like Tajuddin Yildiz of Ghazni.
    • He was known for his generosity and earned the title ‘Lakh Bakhsh’ (Giver of Lakhs).
    • He was a great patron of architecture and initiated the construction of the Qutub Minar in Delhi (in honour of the Sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki) and the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, the first mosque built in Delhi. He also commissioned the Adhai Din ka Jhopra mosque in Ajmer.
    • He died in 1210 AD after falling from his horse while playing Chaugan (a form of polo).
  • Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD):
    • Aram Shah, Aibak’s son, proved incompetent and was defeated and replaced by Iltutmish, Aibak’s son-in-law and the governor of Badaun. He is regarded as the “real founder of the Delhi Sultanate.”
    • Consolidation: He shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi. He suppressed rebellions and defeated rival Turkish commanders like Tajuddin Yildiz (Battle of Tarain, 1215) and Nasir-ud-din Qubacha of Sindh. He also reasserted control over Bengal and Bihar.
    • Mongol Threat: In 1221, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan reached the banks of the Indus in pursuit of Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, the fugitive prince of the Khwarazmian Empire. Iltutmish displayed great diplomatic skill by politely refusing to grant asylum to Mangabarni, thus saving the nascent Sultanate from the wrath of the Mongols.
    • Administrative Reforms:
      1. Iqta System: He institutionalized the Iqta system, a practice of granting land revenue assignments (iqtas) to nobles and officers in lieu of salary. The holders, known as Iqtadars or Muqtis, were responsible for maintaining law and order and collecting revenue from their iqta, a portion of which was sent to the central treasury.
      2. Turkan-i-Chahalgani: He created a new ruling class of his forty most loyal Turkish slave-nobles known as the Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa. This corps helped him consolidate power but later became a powerful clique that often decided the fate of the throne.
      3. Currency: He introduced a standardized coinage. The silver Tanka (approx. 175 grains) and the copper Jital became the two basic coins of the Sultanate period.
    • Legitimacy: In 1229, he received a ‘letter of investiture’ from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad, which gave him religious and political legitimacy as an independent Sultan in the eyes of the Islamic world.
  • Raziya Sultan (1236-1240 AD):
    • Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya, finding his sons incompetent. However, the Turkish nobility, opposed to a female ruler, placed her brother Rukn-ud-din Firoz on the throne. Raziya, with the support of the people of Delhi, seized the throne.
    • Assertion of Authority: She was an able and just ruler. She abandoned the female veil (purdah), wore male attire, and conducted court with an open face. She led armies and managed the administration effectively.
    • Conflict with Nobility: Her assertion of power and her policy of appointing non-Turks to important posts angered the Chahalgani. Her alleged favouritism towards an Abyssinian slave, Jamal-ud-din Yakut, whom she appointed as Amir-i-Akhur (Master of the Royal Stables), was used as a pretext by the nobles to conspire against her.
    • Downfall: A rebellion led by Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda, resulted in Yakut’s death and Raziya’s imprisonment. In a strategic move, she married Altunia and they marched on Delhi, but were defeated. Both were killed by bandits while fleeing in 1240 AD.
  • Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-1287 AD):
    • After a period of instability following Raziya’s death, during which the Chahalgani dominated, Balban, one of its most powerful members, gradually consolidated power, first as the regent (Naib) for Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud and then as the Sultan himself.
    • Theory of Kingship: He believed in a theory of kingship based on power, prestige, and divine right. He claimed descent from the mythical Iranian hero Afrasiyab and declared that the Sultan was the ‘Shadow of God’ (Zil-i-Ilahi).
    • Restoration of Crown’s Prestige:
      1. Broke the Chahalgani: He systematically eliminated the Turkan-i-Chahalgani, poisoning and assassinating its members to crush the power of the nobility.
      2. Court Discipline: He introduced the Persian court ceremonies of Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the Sultan’s feet) to underscore the Sultan’s superior status. He also introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz.
      3. Exclusion of Non-Turks: He championed a policy of Turkish racial superiority, excluding Indian Muslims and other non-Turks from high office.
    • Administrative and Military Reforms:
      1. Spy System: He established an efficient network of spies and informants called barids to keep him updated on the activities of his nobles and officials.
      2. Military Department: He separated the military department from the finance department by creating the Diwan-i-Arz to ensure a strong, centralized army.
      3. Policy of ‘Blood and Iron’: He adopted a ruthless policy of suppression against robbers like the Mewatis and internal rebels.
    • Mongol Policy: The Mongol threat loomed large. Balban focused on strengthening the frontier forts and adopted a policy of both force and diplomacy. His beloved eldest son, Prince Muhammad, was killed fighting the Mongols in 1286, a blow from which Balban never recovered.
    • Succession: After his death in 1287, his weak successors were unable to hold power, leading to the overthrow of the Mamluk dynasty by Jalal-ud-din Khilji.

The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

The rise of the Khiljis is often termed the ‘Khilji Revolution’ as it ended the Ilbari Turk monopoly on power and signified the ascendancy of non-Turks and Indian Muslims in the administration.

  • Jalal-ud-din Khilji (1290-1296 AD):
    • He founded the dynasty at an old age. He was known for his mild and generous policies, believing a state could not be based purely on force. He pardoned rebels and avoided harsh punishments, a policy that was viewed as weak by many nobles.
    • He was treacherously murdered in 1296 at Kara by his ambitious nephew and son-in-law, Ali Gurshasp, who then ascended the throne as Ala-ud-din Khilji.
  • Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 AD):
    • One of the most powerful and efficient rulers of the Sultanate period, he was a brilliant general and a shrewd administrator.
    • Dealing with Nobility: To prevent rebellions, he instituted a series of measures: he confiscated the properties of nobles, banned social gatherings and matrimonial alliances among them without his permission, prohibited alcohol, and reorganized the spy system.
    • Military Campaigns:
      1. Conquest of North India: He completed the conquest of North India, annexing Gujarat (1299), Ranthambore (1301), and Chittor (1303) – the story of Rani Padmini and the Jauhar is associated with this campaign, famously narrated in Malik Muhammad Jayasi’s epic poem Padmavat (written in the 16th century). He also conquered Malwa, Siwana, and Jalore.
      2. Mongol Invasions: He successfully repulsed numerous and severe Mongol invasions between 1297 and 1306 AD. He built the Siri Fort in Delhi and strengthened the frontier defences to protect the capital.
      3. Deccan and South Indian Expeditions: These campaigns were led by his trusted slave general, Malik Kafur. The primary motive was to extract wealth, and the southern kingdoms were not directly annexed but forced to pay annual tribute. The major campaigns were against:
        • Devagiri: Ruled by the Yadavas (King Ramachandra Deva).
        • Warangal: Ruled by the Kakatiyas (King Prataparudra Deva).
        • Dwarasamudra: Ruled by the Hoysalas (King Vira Ballala III).
        • Madurai: Ruled by the Pandyas. The accounts of these campaigns are vividly described by the court poet Amir Khusrau in his work Khazain-ul-Futuh (The Treasures of Victory).

Prelims Pointers

  • Mahmud of Ghazni: Raided India 17 times. Famous raid on Somnath temple (1025 AD).
  • Al-Biruni: Persian scholar who came to India with Mahmud of Ghazni; authored Kitab-ul-Hind.
  • Raja Suheldev: Ruler of Shravasti who defeated Ghaznavid general Salar Masud near Bahraich.
  • Agnikula Theory: Origin story for Chauhans, Parmars, Solankis, and Pratiharas from a fire-pit, mentioned in Prithviraj Raso.
  • Anangpal Tomara: Founder of Dhillika (Delhi).
  • Vigraharaja IV: Chauhan ruler; built a Sanskrit college in Ajmer, later converted into Adhai Din ka Jhopra.
  • Battles of Tarain: Fought between Prithviraj Chauhan and Muhammad Ghori in 1191 AD (Prithviraj won) and 1192 AD (Ghori won).
  • Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD): Muhammad Ghori’s forces defeated Jaichand of Kannauj.
  • Raja Bhoj: Great Paramara king; scholar and author of books like Samarangana Sutradhara. Founded Bhojpur.
  • Khajuraho Temples: Built by the Chandela dynasty. The Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built by Vidyadhara.
  • Solankis of Gujarat:
    • Bhima I: Reigned during the Somnath raid. Built the Sun Temple at Modhera.
    • Udayamati: Queen of Bhima I, built Rani-ki-Vav (UNESCO World Heritage Site).
  • Battle of Kayadara (1178 AD): Muhammad Ghori was defeated by Solanki forces led by Queen Naiki Devi.
  • Bakhtiyar Khilji: Ghurid general who destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila universities.
  • Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-10): Founder of the Delhi Sultanate (Mamluk/Slave dynasty). Titled ‘Lakh Bakhsh’. Started construction of Qutub Minar. Died playing Chaugan.
  • Iltutmish (1211-36): Considered the ‘real founder’ of the Delhi Sultanate.
    1. Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi.
    2. Introduced Iqta system.
    3. Created the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (Corps of Forty).
    4. Introduced silver coin Tanka and copper coin Jital.
    5. Saved India from Mongol invasion by refusing shelter to Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni.
  • Raziya Sultan (1236-40): First and only female Muslim ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
  • Balban (1266-87):
    1. Broke the power of Turkan-i-Chahalgani.
    2. Introduced Persian customs of Sijda and Paibos.
    3. Promoted the theory of kingship as ‘Shadow of God’ (Zil-i-Ilahi).
    4. Established a separate military department, Diwan-i-Arz.
    5. Used a network of spies called barids.
  • Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316):
    1. Successfully defended against Mongol invasions.
    2. Annexed Gujarat, Ranthambore, and Chittor.
    3. His general, Malik Kafur, led campaigns into South India (Deccan).
  • Amir Khusrau: Court poet of several Delhi Sultans, including Ala-ud-din Khilji. Authored Khazain-ul-Futuh.

Mains Insights

  1. Nature and Impact of Ghaznavid Invasions:

    • Historiographical Debate: There is a significant debate on the motivations behind Mahmud’s raids.
      • British and Nationalist View: Often portrayed Mahmud as a religious fanatic driven by iconoclastic zeal, using this to explain a supposed long history of Hindu-Muslim conflict.
      • Marxist and Revisionist View (e.g., Romila Thapar): Argue that the motivations were primarily economic. Temples were targeted because they were immense repositories of wealth, and the plunder was essential to finance his expanding empire in Central Asia. The rhetoric of ‘jihad’ was a justification.
    • Cause-Effect Analysis: The raids led to a massive drain of wealth, crippling the economy of Northwestern India. Politically, they exposed the disunity and outdated military tactics of the Rajput states, paving the way for future conquests by the Ghurids who aimed for territorial control, not just plunder.

  2. Reasons for the Defeat of Rajput Rulers:

    • Political Factors:
      • Lack of Central Authority: Rajput polity was highly decentralized and feudal in nature. Rulers were dependent on feudal lords (samantas) for military support, who often had conflicting loyalties.
      • Internecine Warfare: The Rajputs were engaged in constant internal conflicts (e.g., Chauhan-Gahadavala rivalry), preventing them from presenting a united front against a common enemy.
    • Military Factors:
      • Superior Turkish Tactics: The Turks possessed superior military technology and strategy. Their use of swift-moving mounted archers armed with iron stirrups and crossbows gave them an edge over the Rajputs’ reliance on slow-moving war elephants and infantry.
      • Unified Command: The Turkish army fought under a single, unified command, whereas the Rajput armies were often fractious coalitions with little coordination.
    • Socio-Cultural Factors:
      • Caste System: The rigid caste system meant that fighting was restricted to the Kshatriya caste, limiting the size of the available manpower pool.
      • Outdated Chivalry: Rajput ideals of chivalry were often a liability in practical warfare. They eschewed strategic retreats, surprise attacks, and attacking a fleeing enemy, which the Turks used to great effect.

  3. Consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate under Iltutmish and Balban:

    • Iltutmish - The Architect: While Aibak was the founder, Iltutmish was the architect who gave the Sultanate its institutional framework. The Iqta system balanced central authority with regional administration. The creation of the Chahalgani secured the loyalty of the powerful Turkish elite. His diplomatic handling of the Mongol threat was crucial for the Sultanate’s survival in its infancy.
    • Balban - The Consolidator: Balban’s reign was a response to the challenge posed by the over-mighty nobility (Chahalgani) that he himself was a part of. His theory of kingship (Zil-i-Ilahi) and enforcement of rigorous court etiquette were designed to restore the absolute power and prestige of the monarchy. His ‘blood and iron’ policy and military reforms (Diwan-i-Arz) created a strong, centralized state capable of dealing with internal rebellions and the external Mongol threat. His policies created a foundation of stability upon which Ala-ud-din Khilji later built his empire.

  4. The ‘Khilji Revolution’ - Significance:

    • Shift in Power Dynamics: The accession of the Khiljis marked a significant shift. It ended the monopoly of high office by the Ilbari Turks, who had considered themselves a privileged ruling class.
    • Broadening the Social Base: The Khiljis opened the doors of the nobility to a wider group, including non-Turks, Indian Muslims, and even Hindu converts (like Malik Kafur). This demonstrated that birth and lineage were no longer the sole criteria for power; loyalty and merit became more important. This broadened the social base of the ruling elite and strengthened the Sultanate.
    • Separation of State and Religion (under Ala-ud-din): Ala-ud-din Khilji’s reign saw a clear trend towards separating religion from politics. He famously declared, “I do not know whether this is lawful or unlawful; whatever I think to be for the good of the state, or suitable for the emergency, that I decree.” This was a pragmatic approach to governance, distinct from the more theocratic tendencies of earlier rulers.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following statements: (UPSC Prelims 2018)

    1. White marble was used in making Buland Darwaza and Khankah at Fatehpur Sikri.
    2. Red sandstone and marble were used in making Bara Imambara and Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    Answer: (d) Neither 1 nor 2.

    • Explanation: Buland Darwaza is built of red and buff sandstone, decorated with white and black marble. The Bara Imambara and Rumi Darwaza in Lucknow were built by Asaf-ud-Daula in the 18th century using brick and lime mortar, not red sandstone and marble. This question, while from a later period, tests knowledge of architectural materials, a theme relevant to Sultanate monuments like the Qutub Minar.

  2. Who among the following rulers of Delhi Sultanate established ‘Diwan-i-Mustakharaj’ to deal with revenue arrears? (UPSC Prelims 2023) (a) Iltutmish (b) Balban (c) Alauddin Khilji (d) Muhammad bin Tughlaq

    Answer: (c) Alauddin Khilji.

    • Explanation: Alauddin Khilji created the Diwan-i-Mustakharaj (department of arrears) to inquire into the revenue arrears and to collect them. This was part of his extensive revenue and market reforms.

  3. The establishment of ‘Diwan-i-Arz’ department was done by which of the following Sultans? (UPSC Prelims - various state PSCs, similar concepts tested) (a) Iltutmish (b) Balban (c) Alauddin Khilji (d) Firoz Shah Tughlaq

    Answer: (b) Balban.

    • Explanation: Ghiyas-ud-din Balban established the Diwan-i-Arz, a separate military department, to reorganize the army and increase its efficiency to counter internal rebellions and the Mongol threat.

  4. Which ruler of the Delhi Sultanate introduced the system of ‘Sijda’ and ‘Paibos’ as court etiquette? (UPSC Prelims - frequent theme) (a) Qutb-ud-din Aibak (b) Iltutmish (c) Balban (d) Alauddin Khilji

    Answer: (c) Balban.

    • Explanation: Balban introduced these Persian customs to assert the supremacy of the Sultan and enforce strict discipline at the court.

  5. Consider the following pairs: (Based on UPSC Pattern)

    1. Rani-ki-Vav : Udayamati
    2. Adhai Din ka Jhopra : Vigraharaja IV
    3. Kandariya Mahadeva Temple : Vidyadhara Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (b) 1 and 3 only.

    • Explanation: Rani-ki-Vav was built by Queen Udayamati. Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built during the reign of Chandela king Vidyadhara. Adhai Din ka Jhopra was a Sanskrit college built by Vigraharaja IV, but it was converted into a mosque by Qutb-ud-din Aibak. The structure is known by its later name, making the pair slightly ambiguous, but the primary construction as a mosque was not by Vigraharaja. Pairs 1 and 3 are definitively correct.

Mains

  1. How did the Ghurid invasions differ from the Ghaznavid raids in their nature and impact on India? (UPSC Mains - based on pattern)

    Answer: The invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori, though both Turkic in origin, were fundamentally different in their objectives, nature, and long-term impact on the Indian subcontinent.

    Nature of Invasions:

    • Ghaznavid Raids (Mahmud): Mahmud’s 17 raids were primarily plundering expeditions. His main objective was to loot the immense wealth of Indian temples and cities to finance his vast empire in Central Asia and to embellish his capital, Ghazni. He did not attempt to establish a permanent, consolidated empire in India, though he annexed Punjab as a strategic base for his raids.
    • Ghurid Invasions (Ghori): Muhammad Ghori’s invasions were driven by imperial ambition. His goal was conquest and the establishment of a lasting empire in India. His victory in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192) was not followed by a withdrawal with loot, but by the systematic occupation of territories and the appointment of governors like Qutb-ud-din Aibak to administer them.

    Impact on India:

    • Impact of Ghaznavid Raids: The primary impact was economic – a severe drain of wealth that crippled the regional economies of Northern India. Politically, the raids exposed the military vulnerabilities and lack of unity among the Rajput kingdoms, but did not immediately lead to their downfall or the establishment of a foreign power in the heartland.
    • Impact of Ghurid Invasions: The Ghurid conquests had a transformative and lasting impact. They led to the overthrow of major Rajput kingdoms and culminated in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206. This marked the beginning of a new Turko-Persian political and administrative system in India, introducing new institutions like the Iqta system and ushering in a new era of Indo-Islamic culture and architecture. Ghori’s invasions, therefore, were a turning point that fundamentally altered the course of Indian history.

  2. “Balban’s theory of kingship was a response to the political challenges of his time.” Elaborate. (UPSC Mains - analytical pattern)

    Answer: Ghiyas-ud-din Balban’s theory of kingship, based on the principles of divine right, power, and prestige, was a direct and carefully crafted response to the formidable political challenges that threatened the existence of the Delhi Sultanate during his reign.

    Challenges Faced by Balban:

    1. Power of the Nobility (Turkan-i-Chahalgani): The ‘Corps of Forty’, created by Iltutmish, had become ‘king-makers’, deposing sultans at will and usurping the crown’s authority. This created immense political instability.
    2. Erosion of Sultan’s Prestige: The authority and dignity of the Sultan’s office had been severely undermined by the weak successors of Iltutmish.
    3. Internal Rebellions: Law and order had broken down, with frequent rebellions by local chiefs and lawlessness in the areas around Delhi (e.g., the Mewatis).
    4. External Threat of Mongols: The Mongol threat on the northwestern frontier was constant and severe, requiring a strong, centralized state to mount an effective defence.

    Balban’s Response through his Theory of Kingship:

    • Restoring Prestige (Zil-i-Ilahi): By proclaiming the Sultan as the ‘Shadow of God on Earth’ (Zil-i-Ilahi) and claiming descent from the mythical Iranian hero Afrasiyab, he elevated the monarchy to a divine status, placing it far above the nobility.
    • Enforcing Discipline (Sijda and Paibos): The introduction of rigorous Persian court ceremonies like Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing the Sultan’s feet) was not mere symbolism. It was a tool to enforce discipline, demand absolute loyalty, and demonstrate the unbridgeable gap between the ruler and his subjects, including the highest nobles.
    • Crushing the Nobility: His theory justified the ruthless suppression of the Chahalgani. He saw them as rivals to the crown and systematically eliminated them through assassinations and poisonings.
    • ‘Blood and Iron’ Policy: His belief in the absolute power of the monarch justified his ruthless ‘blood and iron’ policy against rebels and lawless elements, thereby restoring order.
    • Centralization of Power: The theory of an all-powerful king provided the ideological basis for centralizing the army under the Diwan-i-Arz and establishing an efficient spy network (barids) to control the nobility.

    In conclusion, Balban’s theory of kingship was not an abstract doctrine but a pragmatic political tool designed to restore the power of the monarchy, crush the disruptive nobility, and create a strong, centralized state capable of surviving the severe internal and external threats of the 13th century.

  3. Analyze the causes for the success of the Turks against the Rajputs in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. (UPSC Mains 2017 - similar theme)

    Answer: The success of the Turkish invaders against the formidable Rajput armies was not due to a single factor but a combination of political, military, and social weaknesses on the part of the Rajputs and corresponding strengths of the Turks.

    Political Causes:

    • Political Disunity: The Rajput kingdoms were characterized by a lack of political unity and constant internecine warfare. The concept of a unified Indian state was absent; loyalty was primarily to one’s own clan and king. Rivalries, such as between Prithviraj Chauhan and Jaichand of Kannauj, prevented them from forming a lasting and effective confederacy against a common foe.
    • Feudal Structure: The Rajput polity was highly decentralized. Kings were dependent on feudal chiefs (samantas) for troops. This system led to a lack of a strong, standing central army and poor coordination on the battlefield as each feudal contingent fought under its own commander.

    Military Causes:

    • Superior Military Strategy and Technology: The Turks employed superior military tactics. Their core strength was the mounted archer, who could shoot arrows with great accuracy and speed while on the move, thanks to the use of the iron stirrup. This mobility allowed them to harass the enemy from a distance and execute tactics like feigned retreats.
    • Cavalry vs. Elephants: The Turkish armies were predominantly cavalry-based, emphasizing speed and maneuverability. The Rajputs, while possessing a strong cavalry, placed excessive reliance on slow-moving war elephants, which proved to be a liability against a fast-moving cavalry and could cause chaos in their own ranks if they panicked.
    • Unified Command: The Turkish army fought as a single unit under a supreme commander, allowing for better strategic planning and execution. The Rajput armies were often loose coalitions with divided command.

    Socio-Cultural Factors:

    • Rajput Code of Chivalry: While admirable, the Rajput code of conduct in warfare was often a disadvantage. They considered it unchivalrous to attack a fleeing enemy or use stratagems, which the Turks exploited effectively.
    • Social Structure: The rigid caste system meant that the responsibility of fighting was confined to the Kshatriya caste, limiting the number of men available for military service. The Turkish armies, on the other hand, had a more egalitarian composition where even slaves could rise to the rank of general.

    Therefore, the Turkish success was a result of their superior military organization, mobility, and unified leadership, which exploited the political fragmentation and outdated military methods of the Rajput states.

  4. Evaluate the role of Iltutmish in the consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate. Why is he considered the ‘real founder’? (UPSC Mains - analytical pattern)

    Answer: While Qutb-ud-din Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate, it was his successor, Iltutmish, who is rightly regarded as its ‘real founder’. He inherited a precarious and fragmented kingdom and transformed it into a consolidated and stable empire through his political acumen, administrative reforms, and diplomatic foresight.

    Challenges faced by Iltutmish:

    • The Sultanate was in its infancy, with a questionable legal status.
    • Rival Ghurid commanders like Tajuddin Yildiz in Ghazni and Nasir-ud-din Qubacha in Sindh and Multan claimed sovereignty over the Indian territories.
    • Powerful local chiefs and Rajput rulers were reasserting their independence.
    • A looming threat from the Mongol hordes under Genghis Khan was present on the northwest frontier.

    Iltutmish’s Role in Consolidation:

    1. Securing the Throne and Suppressing Rivals: He first defeated Aibak’s inefficient son, Aram Shah. He then decisively defeated his main rivals, Yildiz (Third Battle of Tarain, 1215) and Qubacha, thereby securing the Sultanate’s frontiers and establishing his undisputed authority.
    2. Establishing a Capital: By shifting the capital from Lahore to Delhi, he provided the Sultanate with a central and defensible administrative heartland.
    3. Diplomatic Acumen (Mongol Threat): His refusal to grant asylum to the Khwarizmi prince, Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, was a masterstroke of diplomacy. It averted a direct and devastating confrontation with Genghis Khan, which the nascent Sultanate could not have survived.
    4. Creating an Administrative Framework:
      • Iqta System: He institutionalized the Iqta system, creating a mechanism for revenue collection and administration across the empire, and binding the nobles to the central authority.
      • Turkan-i-Chahalgani: He created the ‘Corps of Forty’, a loyal cadre of Turkish nobles who helped him suppress rebellions and administer the empire, forming the backbone of the new ruling class.
      • Standardized Currency: By introducing the silver Tanka and copper Jital, he established a uniform and standard coinage, which facilitated trade and commerce and asserted his sovereign status.
    5. Gaining Legitimacy: In 1229, he received a robe of honour and a letter of investiture from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad. This granted him formal recognition and legal legitimacy as an independent Sultan in the Islamic world.

    Because Iltutmish not only saved the Sultanate from disintegration but also endowed it with a capital, a sovereign status, a distinct administrative structure, and a new ruling class, he is justly considered the ‘real founder’ of the Delhi Sultanate.

  5. Examine the imperial and military campaigns of Alauddin Khilji. How did his Deccan policy differ from his policy in North India? (UPSC Mains - analytical pattern)

    Answer: Alauddin Khilji was a consummate militarist and imperialist whose reign witnessed the zenith of the Delhi Sultanate’s territorial expansion. His military campaigns can be broadly divided into his conquests in North India and his expeditions into the Deccan and South India, each guided by a distinct political objective.

    Campaigns in North India: Alauddin’s policy in North India was one of direct annexation and establishment of firm administrative control.

    • Gujarat (1299): The conquest of Gujarat provided the Sultanate with access to its rich ports and overseas trade.
    • Rajasthan: He systematically subjugated the Rajput kingdoms. The conquest of Ranthambore (1301) and the strategically important Chittor (1303) were followed by the subjugation of Malwa, Siwana, and Jalore. These campaigns aimed to break the power of the Rajputs and secure the Sultanate’s frontiers.
    • Defence against Mongols: A significant part of his military focus was on defending the Sultanate from repeated and fierce Mongol invasions. He successfully repulsed them, built fortifications like the Siri Fort, and maintained a large, powerful standing army for this purpose.

    Deccan and South India Policy: Alauddin’s policy towards the Deccan and the far south was fundamentally different. It was not driven by the desire for direct annexation but by economic motives: the extraction of wealth and the assertion of his suzerainty.

    • Expeditions led by Malik Kafur: His brilliant general, Malik Kafur, led a series of successful campaigns against:
      1. The Yadavas of Devagiri.
      2. The Kakatiyas of Warangal.
      3. The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra.
      4. The Pandyas of Madurai.
    • Nature of the Policy:
      • Wealth Extraction: These campaigns resulted in the plunder of immense quantities of gold, silver, jewels, horses, and elephants, which were used to finance Alauddin’s large army and administrative reforms.
      • Subordination, not Annexation: The defeated southern rulers were not dethroned. They were forced to accept Alauddin’s suzerainty, acknowledge him as their overlord, and agree to pay a huge annual tribute to Delhi. Alauddin understood the difficulty of directly administering such distant territories from Delhi and opted for a pragmatic policy of turning them into tributary states.

    In conclusion, Alauddin Khilji’s military policies were shrewdly pragmatic. In the north, he pursued a policy of complete conquest and annexation to create a secure and consolidated empire. In the south, he adopted a policy of a suzerain-vassal relationship, focusing on using its vast wealth to strengthen his power in the north, demonstrating a clear understanding of the geopolitical realities of his time.

Graph View