1.2.2 - Medieval India Notes 03

Elaborate Notes

The Khilji Dynasty: Alauddin Khilji’s Reforms

Alauddin Khilji’s reign (1296-1316 CE) is marked by a series of radical administrative, economic, and military reforms, primarily driven by the existential threat of Mongol invasions and his own imperial ambitions.

• Market Reforms (Price Control):

  • Context: The constant Mongol threat from the North-West frontier necessitated the maintenance of a large, permanent standing army. Paying this army a high salary would have quickly depleted the treasury. Alauddin’s solution was to lower the cost of living by fixing the price of all essential commodities.
  • Implementation: As detailed by the contemporary historian Ziauddin Barani in his work Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, Alauddin established three separate markets in Delhi: one for food grains, one for costly cloth, and one for horses, slaves, and cattle.
  • He fixed the prices of a vast range of goods, from necessities like wheat, barley, and salt to luxury items like silk. For example, the price of wheat was fixed at 7.5 jitals per man.
  • To ensure supply, the state directly procured grain from the peasants of the Doab region. The land revenue in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab was collected in kind, not cash, and stored in state granaries (ghalla). This was a departure from the practice of awarding Iqtas in this strategic region.
  • A sophisticated administrative machinery was created to oversee these markets, headed by an officer called the Shahna-i-Mandi (Superintendent of the market).
  • Banjaras (nomadic grain transporters) were registered and made responsible for the transport of grain to the city, with their families held as surety to ensure compliance. Hoarding and black-marketing were met with severe punishments, including mutilation.

• Revenue and Military Reforms:

  • To fund his massive army and administrative apparatus, Alauddin implemented stringent revenue policies. He was the first Sultan to order a comprehensive land measurement (paimaish) to assess the land revenue, which he raised to 50% of the produce (kharaj).
  • He targeted the rural intermediaries, the Khuts (village headmen) and Muqaddams (leading men of the village), stripping them of their traditional perquisites and forcing them to pay taxes like everyone else. This was a significant step in asserting central authority. A new set of officials, including Amils, were appointed for direct collection.
  • He became the first Sultan of Delhi to pay his soldiers entirely in cash from the royal treasury. This created a professional, loyal, and centrally controlled army, unlike the earlier system which relied on soldiers furnished by Iqta holders.
  • To prevent corruption and fraud in the army, he introduced the system of Dag (branding of horses) to stop the substitution of high-quality horses with inferior ones, and Hulia or Chehra (a detailed descriptive roll of each soldier) to prevent proxy soldiers during musters.

• Consolidation of Power and Social Control:

  • Alauddin believed that conspiracies stemmed from the excess wealth of the nobles, social gatherings, and inter-marriages among powerful families.
  • He passed four ordinances to curb the power of the nobility. These included the confiscation of religious endowments and free grants of land (inam, waqf), the establishment of an extensive spy network (barids and munhis), a ban on the public sale and consumption of wine and intoxicants, and a prohibition on social gatherings and matrimonial alliances among nobles without the Sultan’s explicit permission.
  • Alauddin did not accept the authority of the Caliph in administrative matters, a significant departure from his predecessors. While he styled himself Sikandar-i-Sani (the Second Alexander), he maintained the fiction of the Caliph’s supremacy on his coins for legitimacy. Barani noted that Alauddin was the first Sultan to assert that “kingship knows no kinship” and that he did not let religious law (Sharia) interfere in matters of the state, a view that marks a move towards a more secular, state-centric policy.

• Succession and End of the Dynasty:

  • After Alauddin’s death in 1316, his powerful general, Malik Kafur, placed the minor prince Shihabuddin on the throne. However, Kafur was soon assassinated.
  • Alauddin’s elder son, Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah, ascended the throne but proved to be a weak and licentious ruler. He was murdered in 1320 by his favourite noble, Khusrau Khan, who was of Hindu origin and had converted to Islam.
  • Khusrau Khan seized the throne, but his reign was short-lived as he was overthrown and killed by Ghazi Malik (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq), the governor of Dipalpur, marking the end of the Khilji dynasty.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 CE)

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 CE):

  • The founder of the dynasty, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, restored order after the turmoil following Alauddin’s death. He was a capable military commander and administrator.
  • He rationalized the land revenue system, ordering that the tax should not be increased by more than one-eleventh in a year. He also encouraged agriculture and patronized canal construction for irrigation.
  • His death in 1325 is a subject of historical debate. The contemporary traveler Ibn Battuta in his Rihla suggests that his death, caused by the collapse of a wooden pavilion near Delhi, was a conspiracy hatched by his son, Jauna Khan (later Muhammad bin Tughlaq). However, other historians like Barani attribute it to an accident.

• Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE):

  • Known as one of the most learned and controversial sovereigns of medieval India, his reign is defined by a series of ambitious and innovative, yet poorly executed, experiments. This has led historians like Barani and Isami to label him a “mixture of opposites” and the “wisest of fools.”
  • Transfer of Capital (1327): He shifted the capital from Delhi to Devagiri, which he renamed Daulatabad, in the Deccan. The stated reasons were strategic: to establish a more centrally located capital and to consolidate control over the newly conquered south. However, the forced and wholesale migration of the entire population of Delhi, rather than just the administrative machinery, caused immense suffering and resentment. After a few years, the project was abandoned, and the capital was shifted back to Delhi.
  • Introduction of Token Currency (1329): Facing a global shortage of silver, Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a token currency, issuing bronze coins at par with the value of the silver tanka. This concept was ahead of its time, mirroring similar experiments in China and Persia. However, the failure to put in place a mechanism to prevent forgery led to mass counterfeiting by common citizens. The market was flooded with fake coins, leading to economic chaos. The Sultan had to withdraw the currency and exchange all coins, genuine and fake, for silver, which severely depleted the state treasury.
  • Proposed Khurasan Expedition: He raised a massive army of reportedly 370,000 men for a planned invasion of Khurasan (in modern-day Iran/Afghanistan), paying them a full year’s salary in advance. The plan was abandoned when the political situation in Central Asia changed, and the army had to be disbanded, causing financial ruin and widespread unemployment.
  • Qarachil Expedition: An expedition into the Kumaon hills (Qarachil region) to secure the northern frontiers was initially successful but suffered heavy casualties and logistical failure during the retreat in the harsh Himalayan terrain.
  • Agrarian Reforms: To counter a severe famine in the Doab region, he established a separate department for agriculture, Diwan-i-Amir Kohi. It was tasked with extending cultivation by providing loans (sondhar) to peasants. However, the scheme failed due to official corruption, poor soil selection, and the inexperience of the officials.
  • The culmination of these failed experiments, high taxation, and famine led to widespread rebellions. While the Sultanate reached its territorial zenith under him, the process of its disintegration also began. Two major independent kingdoms, the Bahmani Sultanate (1347) and the Vijayanagara Empire (1336), emerged in the Deccan during his reign.

• Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 CE):

  • The cousin and successor of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Firoz Shah’s policies were largely a reaction to the tumultuous reign of his predecessor. He adopted a policy of appeasement towards the nobility, the army, and the orthodox Islamic clergy (Ulema).
  • He gave up on reconquering the Deccan and the South, effectively acknowledging their independence. His military campaigns, such as those to Bengal, were largely unsuccessful. He did, however, lead a successful campaign in Odisha, where he desecrated the Jagannath temple at Puri.
  • He governed strictly according to Islamic law (Sharia). He abolished numerous taxes (abwabs) considered un-Islamic and imposed only the four sanctioned by the Quran: kharaj (land tax), khams (1/5th of war booty), jizyah, and zakat. He made Jizyah a separate tax and, for the first time, imposed it on Brahmins, who were previously exempt.
  • He took a keen interest in history and architecture. He repaired old monuments, including the Qutub Minar, and had two Asokan pillars transported to Delhi. He established several new cities, including Jaunpur, Firozpur, Hisar, and Firozabad (near Delhi).
  • He is renowned for his public works, particularly the construction of a network of canals for irrigation in the region around Delhi and Haryana. This greatly boosted agricultural productivity.
  • His administrative and military policies ultimately weakened the Sultanate. He made the Iqta system hereditary and extended this principle to the army, where soldiers could send substitutes in their place. This eroded the merit-based, centralized military system established by Alauddin Khilji. He also maintained a large number of slaves, creating a separate department (Diwan-i-Bandagan) for them.
  • The Sultanate declined rapidly after his death. The authority of his successors was weak, culminating in the devastating invasion of Timur (Tamerlane) in 1398, which led to the sack of Delhi and dealt a death blow to the Tughlaq dynasty.

The Sayyid (1414-1451 CE) and Lodhi (1451-1526 CE) Dynasties

• Sayyid Dynasty:

  • Following Timur’s invasion, the Sultanate was in disarray. Timur appointed his nominee, Khizr Khan, as the governor of Multan. In 1414, Khizr Khan captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty.
  • The Sayyids claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad, a claim documented in the contemporary text Tarikh-e-Mubarak Shahi by Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi. Their rule was weak and their authority barely extended beyond Delhi and its immediate surroundings.

• Lodhi Dynasty:

  • The Sayyids were replaced by the Lodhis, who were of Afghan origin. Bahlol Lodhi (1451-1489) was the founder. He adopted a conciliatory policy towards his powerful Afghan nobles, considering himself a “first among equals” (primus inter pares) rather than an absolute monarch.
  • His son, Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517), was the most capable Lodhi ruler. He consolidated the empire, established a sound administrative system, and founded the city of Agra in 1504. However, he was known for his religious intolerance.
  • The last ruler, Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526), was arrogant and alienated his nobility. Disgruntled nobles, including Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab, and Rana Sanga of Mewar, invited Babur, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India.
  • This culminated in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Babur’s superior military tactics, including the use of artillery and the tulughma formation, led to the decisive defeat and death of Ibrahim Lodhi, marking the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India.

Administration of the Delhi Sultanate

• Central Administration:

  • The Sultan was the supreme head of the state, possessing absolute power in theory. In practice, his authority was often constrained by powerful nobles and the Ulema.
  • Wizarat: The department of finance, headed by the Wazir, was the most important. The Wazir supervised all other departments. Key officials under him included:
    • Mustaufi-i-Mamalik: Auditor General.
    • Mushrif-i-Mamalik: Accountant General.
  • Diwan-i-Ariz: The military department, headed by the Ariz-i-Mumalik. It was responsible for the recruitment, equipment, and payment of the army.
  • Diwan-i-Insha: The department of royal correspondence, headed by the Dabir-i-Khas.
  • Diwan-i-Rasalat: Headed by the Sadr-us-Sudur, this department dealt with religious matters, justice, and charitable grants (waqf, idrar). The Qazi-ul-Quzat (chief judge) was often the same person.
  • Barid-i-Mumalik: Head of the state intelligence and postal system.

• Iqtadari System:

  • This was a unique politico-administrative and revenue distribution system. The empire’s land was divided into three categories:
    1. Khalisa: Land under the direct control of the Sultan, with revenues collected for the central treasury.
    2. Inam/Waqf: Land granted to religious institutions or individuals, which was tax-free.
    3. Iqta: Tracts of land assigned to nobles and commanders (Iqtadars or Muqtis). The Iqtadar’s duties were to maintain troops for the Sultan and collect revenue from the Iqta. After deducting his own salary and the cost of maintaining his troops, he was required to remit the surplus revenue (fawazil) to the central treasury.
  • The Iqta was not hereditary and was transferable, a measure to prevent the Iqtadars from developing regional loyalties. However, Firoz Shah Tughlaq made the Iqtas hereditary, which weakened central control.
  • To monitor the Iqtadars, Sultans like Balban appointed an accountant (Sahib-e-Diwan or Khwaja) to keep a check on their income and expenditure.

• Local Administration and Economy:

  • Provinces were subdivided into Shiqs (under a Shiqdar) and then into Parganas (a collection of villages).
  • At the village level, traditional functionaries like Khuts (headmen) and Muqaddams (local landlords), along with the Patwari (village accountant), assisted in revenue collection.
  • Land revenue was the primary source of income, typically set at one-third of the produce, but Alauddin Khilji increased it to half.
  • The period saw the popularization of technologies like the Persian wheel (Araghatta) for irrigation, which boosted agricultural output.
  • A sophisticated commercial system developed, with the Hundi (a bill of exchange) facilitating long-distance trade. A class of financiers and money-changers, known as Sarafs, played a crucial role in these transactions.

Prelims Pointers

• Alauddin Khilji fixed the prices of all commodities to maintain a large standing army.
• He was the first Delhi Sultan to pay his soldiers in cash.
• The practice of Dag (branding of horses) and Chehra/Hulia (descriptive roll of soldiers) was introduced by Alauddin Khilji.
• The land revenue in the Ganga-Doab region was collected directly by the state in kind under Alauddin Khilji.
• Local landlords during the Sultanate were known as Khuts and Muqaddams.
• Ziauddin Barani, in his book Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, provides a detailed account of Alauddin Khilji’s reforms.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq transferred his capital from Delhi to Devagiri, renaming it Daulatabad.
• He introduced a token currency of bronze coins, which were to have the same value as the silver Tanka.
• The department of agriculture, Diwan-i-Amir Kohi, was established by Muhammad bin Tughlaq to provide agricultural loans (sondhar).
• The Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms emerged during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveler, visited India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and wrote about his experiences in the Rihla.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq made the Iqta system hereditary.
• Jizyah was imposed as a separate tax for the first time, including on Brahmins, by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq established cities like Jaunpur, Hisar, and Firozabad.
• Timur invaded India in 1398 AD during the reign of Nasiruddin Muhammad Tughlaq.
• The Sayyid dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan, who was appointed as governor by Timur.
• The Lodhi dynasty was of Afghan origin, founded by Bahlol Lodhi.
• The First Battle of Panipat (1526) was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodhi.
• Sultanate Administrative Terms:
  1. Wazir: Head of the revenue department (Wizarat).
  2. Ariz-i-Mumalik: Head of the military department (Diwan-i-Ariz).
  3. Mustaufi-i-Mamalik: Auditor General.
  4. Mushrif-i-Mamalik: Accountant General.
  5. Barid-i-Mumalik: Head of the intelligence department.
  6. Sadr-us-Sudur: Head of the department of religious affairs (Diwan-i-Rasalat).
• Fawazil was the surplus income from an Iqta, which was to be remitted to the central treasury.
• Araghatta refers to the Persian wheel used for irrigation.
• Hundi was a bill of exchange used for trade and commerce during the Sultanate period.

Mains Insights

Historiographical Debates and Analytical Perspectives

1. Alauddin Khilji’s Reforms: Economic Ingenuity or Oppressive Regime?

   • Cause-Effect: The primary driver for Khilji’s radical economic reforms was the Mongol menace. The need for a large, efficient, and affordable army was paramount for the survival of the Sultanate. This led directly to the price control mechanism, cash payments to soldiers, and higher land taxes.
   • Success and Sustainability: While Barani praises the reforms for their effectiveness in controlling prices and enabling military strength, they were sustained through extreme coercion and a vast spy network. They were not based on principles of supply and demand but on state force. Consequently, the system collapsed almost immediately after his death, suggesting it was not a sustainable economic model but a military exigency.
   • Nature of the State: Khilji’s policies reflect the growing power of a centralized, despotic state. His famous quote, “I do not know whether this is lawful or unlawful; whatever I think to be for the good of the state, or suitable for the emergency, that I decree,” as recorded by Barani, signifies a pragmatic and secular approach to governance, where the interests of the state superseded religious law. This marks a significant moment in the evolution of the Indo-Islamic statecraft.

2. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq: Visionary or “Wisest Fool”?

   • The Visionary Argument: Proponents of this view argue that MBT’s ideas were conceptually brilliant and far ahead of his time. The transfer of the capital was a logical step for better control over a vast empire. Token currency was a globally practiced concept to deal with bullion shortages. The Diwan-i-Amir Kohi was a pioneering attempt at state-led agricultural development. His failure lay not in his vision, but in his flawed, hasty, and often tyrannical implementation, coupled with a lack of patience and an inability to win the confidence of his subjects.
   • The “Wisest Fool” Argument: Critics, including contemporary historians like Barani and Isami, emphasize the immense suffering his projects caused. They portray him as an impatient, obstinate, and cruel ruler who lacked practical judgment. The forced migration to Daulatabad, the economic chaos from token currency, and the failure of agricultural schemes are cited as evidence of his folly. His policies alienated every section of society—the Ulema, the nobles, and the common people—leading to widespread rebellions that fatally weakened the Sultanate.

3. Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s Reign: An Era of Peace or the Beginning of the End?

   • Policy of Appeasement: Firoz Shah’s policies were a direct reversal of his predecessors’. He appeased the nobility by making Iqtas hereditary, the army by making posts hereditary, and the Ulema by running the state on theocratic principles. This brought short-term peace and stability.
   • Long-Term Consequences: However, these very policies sowed the seeds of the Sultanate’s decline. Making positions hereditary undermined the meritocratic basis of the administration and military, creating a weak and entrenched aristocracy. His overt submission to the Ulema and imposition of Jizyah on Brahmins reversed the nascent secular tendencies seen under Khilji and MBT, alienating a large section of the population. While his public works were beneficial, his structural administrative changes fatally weakened the central authority, paving the way for the disintegration of the empire and Timur’s easy invasion.

4. The Iqtadari System: Instrument of Centralization and Decentralization

   • As a Tool of Centralization: Initially, the Iqta system was a powerful tool for centralizing power. It allowed the Sultan to control vast territories through appointed commanders without creating a salaried bureaucracy. The principles of transferability and remittance of surplus (fawazil) ensured that Iqtadars remained agents of the central government rather than becoming independent feudal lords.
   • As a Catalyst for Decentralization: The system had inherent centrifugal tendencies. When the central authority weakened, powerful Iqtadars could easily assert their independence. Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s decision to make Iqtas hereditary was the tipping point, transforming a transferable administrative assignment into a de facto landed estate, thus formalizing the decentralization of power and weakening the Sultan’s grip on the empire.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term ‘Araghatta’ refers to: (UPSC CSE 2016) (a) bonded labour (b) land grants made to military officers (c) waterwheel used in the irrigation of land (d) wastelands converted to cultivated land

   Answer: (c) waterwheel used in the irrigation of land

2. Who of the following founded a new city on the south bank of a tributary to river Krishna and undertook to rule his new kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom all the land south of the river was supposed to belong? (UPSC CSE 2015) (a) Amoghavarsha I (b) Ballala II (c) Harihara I (d) Prataparudra II

   Answer: (c) Harihara I (While this question is on the Vijayanagara Empire, its emergence is directly linked to the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, a topic covered in the summary).

3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2019)

   1. It was during the reign of Iltutmish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarezm prince.
   2. It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus.
   3. It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Kerala.

   Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only

   Answer: (a) 1 only (Statement 2 is incorrect as Timur invaded during the reign of Nasiruddin Muhammad Tughlaq. Statement 3 is also incorrect).

4. Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was: (UPSC CSE 2014) (a) the mosque for the use of Royal Family (b) Akbar’s private prayer chamber (c) the hall in which Akbar held discussions with scholars of various religions (d) the room in which the nobles belonging to different religions gathered to discuss religious affairs

   Answer: (c) the hall in which Akbar held discussions with scholars of various religions (Although this question pertains to the Mughal period, it reflects the theme of state-religion interaction, which is also central to the Delhi Sultanate).

5. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2018)

   1. White marble was used in making Buland Darwaza and Khankah at Fatehpur Sikri.
   2. Red sandstone and marble were used in making Bara Imambara and Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow.

   Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

   Answer: (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (Questions on medieval architecture are common. The Tughlaqs were known for their distinct architectural style using grey sandstone, different from the red sandstone of the Mughals. This question tests knowledge of different architectural periods).

Mains

1. Critically examine the successes and failures of Alauddin Khilji’s market reforms. How sustainable were they in the long run? (Hypothetical, based on syllabus)

   Answer Framework:

   • Introduction: Briefly introduce Alauddin Khilji’s market reforms as an unprecedented and ambitious economic experiment in medieval India, driven by military necessities, primarily the Mongol threat. Mention Ziauddin Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi as the principal source.
   • Successes of the Reforms:
     • Military Objective: Successfully maintained a large standing army on a low and fixed salary, enabling Khilji to repel Mongol invasions and expand the empire.
     • Price Stability: Ensured a steady and affordable supply of essential commodities in Delhi, protecting the urban population from price fluctuations and famines.
     • Curbing Inflation: The measures effectively controlled inflation, which was a major achievement.
     • Strengthening State Control: The elaborate administrative machinery (Shahna-i-Mandi), direct grain collection from the Doab, and registration of transporters (Banjaras) greatly enhanced the state’s control over the economy.
   • Failures and Criticisms:
     • Coercive Nature: The system was not based on economic principles but on brute force, severe punishments, and an extensive spy network.
     • Limited Geographical Reach: The reforms were largely effective only in and around the capital, Delhi. Their impact on the rest of the empire was minimal.
     • Peasant Distress: Heavy taxation (50% of produce in kind) and forced sale of surplus grain at low fixed prices impoverished the peasantry in the Doab region.
     • Lack of Sustainability: The system was entirely dependent on the personality of the Sultan. It was too complex and coercive to survive without his strong hand and collapsed immediately after his death, indicating its inherent unsustainability.
   • Conclusion: Conclude that while the market reforms were a remarkable success in achieving their short-term military and political objectives, they were an economic anomaly sustained by authoritarianism. They were not a viable long-term economic policy but a brilliant, albeit oppressive, solution to a specific strategic problem.

2. “Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s projects were well-conceived but ill-executed.” In light of this statement, analyze the major experiments undertaken during his reign. (Hypothetical, based on syllabus)

   Answer Framework:

   • Introduction: Introduce Muhammad bin Tughlaq as a paradoxical figure in Indian history, often debated as either a visionary or a “wise fool.” State the theme of the answer: to analyze how his ambitious and conceptually sound projects failed due to poor execution.
   • Analysis of Major Experiments:
     • Transfer of Capital to Daulatabad:
       • Conception: A strategic move to create a centrally located capital for better administration of the vast empire, especially the Deccan.
       • Execution Flaw: The forced and en masse migration of the entire Delhi populace, instead of a phased shifting of the administrative apparatus, caused immense hardship and resentment. The lack of adequate infrastructure and water in Daulatabad further doomed the project.
     • Introduction of Token Currency:
       • Conception: A farsighted solution to the global shortage of silver, based on practices in contemporary China and Persia.
       • Execution Flaw: The state failed to maintain a monopoly over the minting of coins. The simple design of the bronze coins was easily forged by common artisans, leading to economic chaos and the eventual withdrawal of the currency at a huge cost to the treasury.
     • Khurasan and Qarachil Expeditions:
       • Conception: Geopolitically ambitious plans to secure frontiers and expand influence.
       • Execution Flaw: The Khurasan expedition was abandoned due to shifting political alliances, but only after a massive army was paid a year’s advance salary, draining the treasury. The Qarachil expedition failed due to poor logistical planning for the harsh mountain terrain.
   • Conclusion: Conclude that Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign demonstrates a crucial lesson in governance: that grand vision must be accompanied by pragmatic planning, administrative capability, and public consensus. His failures were not of intellect but of temperament and execution, ultimately leading to the disintegration of the empire he sought to strengthen.

3. The policies of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, though seemingly benevolent, ultimately weakened the Delhi Sultanate. Discuss. (Hypothetical, based on syllabus)

   Answer Framework:

   • Introduction: Briefly describe Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s reign as a period of relative peace and stability following the tumultuous era of his predecessor. State that his policies of appeasement and administrative changes had long-term detrimental effects on the Sultanate.
   • Benevolent Policies and their Short-term Gains:
     • Public Works: Mention his extensive canal network for irrigation, founding of new cities, establishment of hospitals (Dar-ul-Shafa), and patronage of scholars, which brought prosperity and won him goodwill.
     • Economic Relief: Abolition of numerous harsh taxes and a rationalized land revenue system provided relief to the peasantry and merchants.
     • Appeasement: His policies towards the nobles, army, and Ulema ended the widespread rebellions that marked MBT’s reign, bringing political stability.
   • How these Policies Weakened the Sultanate:
     • Hereditary Iqtas and Army Posts: This was the most damaging policy. It destroyed the meritocratic and centralized nature of the administration and military established by Balban and Khilji, creating a powerful, hereditary, and inefficient nobility that challenged central authority.
     • Theocratic Governance: His strict adherence to Sharia and deference to the Ulema, including the imposition of Jizyah on Brahmins, created religious orthodoxy and alienated non-Muslim subjects, weakening the composite fabric of the state.
     • Weak Military Stance: His failure to reclaim lost territories like Bengal and the Deccan signaled the weakness of the central authority and encouraged further fragmentation.
   • Conclusion: Conclude that Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s reign presents a classic case of short-term stability being achieved at the cost of long-term strength. His reversal of the centralizing and meritocratic policies of his predecessors fundamentally weakened the Sultanate’s administrative and military structure, making its rapid decline and eventual collapse after his death inevitable.

4. Trace the evolution of the Iqtadari system during the Delhi Sultanate. How did it shape the political and administrative structure of the empire? (Hypothetical, based on syllabus)

   Answer Framework:

   • Introduction: Define the Iqtadari system as a unique institution of the Delhi Sultanate for revenue collection and military administration, introduced by Iltutmish.
   • Evolution through Different Reigns:
     • Iltutmish: Formalized the system by granting Iqtas to his Turkish nobles in lieu of salary.
     • Balban: Strengthened central control over Iqtadars by appointing khwajas (accountants) to check their accounts and emphasized the remittance of surplus (fawazil).
     • Alauddin Khilji: Curtailed the power of Iqtadars significantly. He abolished Iqtas in the fertile Doab region, bringing it under Khalisa land, and increased central scrutiny over others.
     • Firoz Shah Tughlaq: Marked a turning point by making the Iqtas hereditary. This fundamentally changed the character of the system from a transferable administrative assignment to a semi-permanent landed right.
   • Impact on Political and Administrative Structure:
     • Political Structure: It helped in the consolidation and expansion of the Sultanate by enabling the Sultan to control distant territories through his nobles. However, when made hereditary, it promoted centrifugal forces, leading to the fragmentation of the empire.
     • Administrative Structure: It formed the backbone of provincial administration. The Iqtadar was responsible not only for revenue collection but also for maintaining law and order and providing troops to the Sultan. It integrated the local land revenue system with the central military apparatus.
   • Conclusion: The Iqtadari system was a dynamic institution whose character changed with the strength of the central authority. It was a crucial instrument for both the centralization and the eventual decentralization of power in the Delhi Sultanate, reflecting the central political tension of the era.

5. Evaluate the contribution of the Tughlaq dynasty to the architecture and public works of the Delhi Sultanate. (Hypothetical, based on syllabus)

   Answer Framework:

   • Introduction: State that the Tughlaq period, especially the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, marked a distinct phase in Sultanate architecture and was notable for its extensive public works.
   • Architectural Contributions:
     • Distinct Style: Characterized by sloping “batter” walls, minimal ornamentation, use of grey sandstone, and the deliberate use of arch-and-lintel techniques. This is often described as a more austere or “crisis” style compared to the ornate Khilji architecture.
     • Major Monuments: Discuss key buildings like the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (a prototype for later tombs), the fortified city of Tughlaqabad, and the cities built by Firoz Shah like Firozabad (Firoz Shah Kotla). Mention the use of rubble and plaster, which made construction faster but less durable.
     • Integration of Elements: Note Firoz Shah’s interest in the past, evident in his transportation and re-erection of two ancient Ashokan pillars in Delhi.
   • Public Works, especially under Firoz Shah Tughlaq:
     • Canal System: This was their most significant contribution. Detail the network of canals dug from the Yamuna and Sutlej rivers to irrigate large tracts of land in Haryana and the Delhi region, boosting agriculture and revenue.
     • Urban Development: Mention the founding of several new cities (Jaunpur, Hisar, Firozpur, Firozabad) which served as administrative and commercial centers.
     • Humanitarian Infrastructure: Discuss the construction of hospitals (Dar-ul-Shafa), caravanserais (sarais) for travelers, and the establishment of a department for public charity (Diwan-i-Khairat).
     • Repair and Restoration: Firoz Shah’s efforts in repairing older monuments like the Qutub Minar and the Hauz-i-Khas.
   • Conclusion: Conclude that while Tughlaq architecture was less decorative than that of its predecessors, it was robust and functional. The dynasty’s lasting legacy, however, lies in its unparalleled investment in public works, particularly the canal irrigation system, which had a profound and lasting impact on the region’s economy and landscape.