GS Notes

1.2.2 - Medieval India Notes 04

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Elaborate Notes

Regional Kingdoms in India (10th to 14th Century)

  • Kakatiya Kingdom (c. 1163–1323 CE)

    • Origins and Sovereignty: The Kakatiyas initially served as feudatories to the Rashtrakutas and later the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. They rose to prominence in the Telangana region. The dynasty assumed sovereign status under Prataparudra I (c. 1158–1195 CE), who established his capital at Orugallu, later known as Warangal. Warangal was fortified with concentric circles of walls and moats, a testament to their military engineering.
    • Prominent Rulers and Governance:
      • Ganapati Deva (c. 1199–1262 CE): He was the most powerful Kakatiya ruler who unified the Telugu-speaking regions under his rule. He expanded the kingdom significantly and promoted trade by issuing the Abhaya Sasana (charter of security) at the port of Motupalli, assuring foreign merchants of safety and fixed duties.
      • Rudramadevi (c. 1262–1289 CE): As Ganapati Deva’s daughter, she is one of the most notable female monarchs in Indian history. She adopted a male name, Rudradeva Maharaja, and ruled with great authority. Her reign was praised by the Venetian traveller Marco Polo, who visited her kingdom around 1292-93. In his work, The Travels of Marco Polo, he noted the kingdom’s prosperity, its fine cotton production, and the queen’s administrative acumen.
    • Decline: The kingdom faced repeated invasions from the Delhi Sultanate. Malik Kafur, the general of Alauddin Khilji, besieged Warangal in 1310, forcing Prataparudra II to become a tributary and surrender immense wealth, including the famed Kohinoor diamond. The kingdom was finally annexed by the Tughlaq dynasty under Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in 1323 CE.
    • Cultural Contributions: The Kakatiyas were patrons of Shaivism. The Ramappa Temple (Rudreshwara Temple) at Palampet, constructed during the reign of Ganapati Deva by his general Recharla Rudra, is a magnificent example of Kakatiya architecture. Its unique “floating bricks” and intricate carvings led to its declaration as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021. They also patronised Telugu literature, which flourished during their rule.

  • Hoysala Dynasty (c. 1026–1343 CE)

    • Establishment and Capital: The Hoysalas began as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas, carving out a kingdom in the Mysore region (Karnata). Vinayaditya (c. 1047–1098 CE) is considered an early ruler. However, it was Vishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152 CE) who established the dynasty’s prominence. He shifted the capital from Belur to Dwarasamudra (modern-day Halebidu).
    • Key Rulers: The most powerful rulers were Veera Ballala II (c. 1173–1220 CE), who defeated the Chalukyas and established Hoysala hegemony, and Veera Ballala III (c. 1292–1343 CE). During the reign of Ballala III, the kingdom was repeatedly attacked by Malik Kafur (1311) and later by Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s forces, which severely weakened it.
    • Legacy and Decline: The Hoysalas’ resistance to the Delhi Sultanate’s incursions paved the way for the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, which emerged from its remnants.
    • Architecture and Literature: The Hoysalas are renowned for their unique style of temple architecture, often called the Vesara style, which features star-shaped platforms (stellate plans), intricate soapstone carvings, and lathe-turned pillars. The Chennakeshava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Keshava Temple at Somanathapura are masterpieces of this style. They patronised both Sanskrit and Kannada literature. The Jain scholar Janna was a prominent poet in the court of Veera Ballala II.

  • Yadavas (Seuna) of Devagiri (c. 1187–1317 CE)

    • Rise to Power: The Yadavas were also initially feudatories of the Rashtrakutas and Western Chalukyas. Bhillama V (c. 1175–1191 CE) established their sovereignty and founded the city of Devagiri as his capital.
    • Significant Rulers: Singhana II (c. 1200–1247 CE) was the most powerful ruler, expanding the kingdom to its zenith. The last great ruler was Ramachandra Deva (c. 1271–1311 CE).
    • Conflict with Delhi Sultanate: Ramachandra Deva was defeated by Alauddin Khilji in 1296 CE and was forced to pay a huge tribute, becoming a vassal. Later, when he withheld tribute, Malik Kafur attacked again in 1307 CE. Ramachandra Deva was taken to Delhi, but was treated with honour and restored to his throne. A matrimonial alliance was formed, with his daughter Jhatyapali being married to Alauddin Khilji. His son, Shankaradeva, rebelled against Delhi after his father’s death but was defeated and killed by Malik Kafur in 1313 CE, leading to the annexation of the kingdom.

Eastern Ganga Dynasty (c. 1038–1434 CE)

  • Territory and Capitals: The Eastern Gangas ruled over Kalinga, a region comprising modern-day Odisha and parts of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal. Their primary capital was Kalinganagara (modern Mukhalingam), and a secondary capital was established at Cuttack (Kataka).
  • Temple Architecture: The dynasty is immortalised by its contribution to temple architecture, representing the pinnacle of the Kalinga style.
    • Anantavarman Chodaganga (c. 1077–1150 CE) initiated the construction of the massive Jagannath Temple at Puri, a major pilgrimage site for Vaishnavites.
    • Narasimhadeva I (c. 1238–1264 CE) commissioned the construction of the Konark Sun Temple, also known as the Black Pagoda, a UNESCO World Heritage Site famed for its colossal chariot-like structure.
  • Decline and Successors: The dynasty declined after repeated invasions, notably by Firoz Shah Tughlaq in the 14th century. They were eventually succeeded by the Gajapati Dynasty, founded by Kapilendra Deva in 1435 CE. The Gajapatis, with their capital at Cuttack, became a major power and were frequent rivals of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Vijayanagara Empire (c. 1336–1646 CE)

  • Foundation: The empire was founded in 1336 on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra River by two brothers, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I. They were initially feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal or the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra. Tradition attributes their inspiration to the sage Vidyaranya of the Sringeri Matha. The capital was named Vijayanagara (“City of Victory”), the ruins of which are now at Hampi, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

  • Sangama Dynasty (c. 1336–1485 CE)

    • Harihara I and Bukka I consolidated the kingdom. Bukka’s son, Kumara Kampana, campaigned against the Madurai Sultanate, a victory immortalised by his wife Gangadevi in the Sanskrit epic Madhura Vijayam.
    • Deva Raya I (c. 1406–1422 CE) is known for his military campaigns against the Bahmani Sultanate and for constructing a dam across the Tungabhadra River with a 24 km long canal to supply water to the capital, a feat praised by the Persian visitor Abdur Razzaq.
    • Deva Raya II (c. 1424–1446 CE), the greatest ruler of this dynasty, was also known as Gajabetekara (Hunter of Elephants). To counter the superior Bahmani cavalry, he enlisted a large number of Muslim archers and cavalrymen in his army, granting them jagirs. This policy showcased a pragmatic and inclusive approach to military administration.
    • Weak successors led to a period of decline, enabling the Gajapati rulers of Odisha to invade and capture parts of the empire. This crisis prompted a military commander, Saluva Narasimha, to usurp the throne in 1485 CE to save the kingdom from disintegration.

  • Saluva Dynasty (c. 1485–1505 CE)

    • Founded by Saluva Narasimha, this dynasty’s rule was brief. He successfully recovered territories lost to the Gajapatis and Bahmanis. After his death, his young sons were placed under the regency of his general, Narsa Nayaka. This marked the beginning of the second usurpation.

  • Tuluva Dynasty (c. 1505–1570 CE)

    • Narsa Nayaka’s son, Vira Narasimha Raya, deposed the last Saluva ruler and founded the Tuluva dynasty in 1505 CE.
    • Krishnadevaraya (KDR) (c. 1509–1529 CE): The greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire.
      • Military Genius: He defeated the Gajapatis of Odisha, the Sultan of Bijapur in the Battle of Raichur (1520), and maintained control over all of South India.
      • Administrator: He was an efficient administrator who focused on irrigation by building tanks and canals. He promoted overseas trade and maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese, who had established themselves in Goa. The Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz left detailed accounts of his reign, praising his personality, administrative efficiency, and the prosperity of the empire.
      • Patron of Arts: His court was adorned with the Ashtadiggajas (Eight Elephants), a collective of eight great Telugu poets. The most famous among them was Allasani Peddana. KDR himself was a great scholar, authoring the Telugu political treatise Amuktamalyada and a Sanskrit play Jambavati Kalyanam.
    • Battle of Talikota (1565): After KDR’s death, power was wielded by his son-in-law, Aliya Rama Raya. His policy of playing one Deccan Sultan against another eventually backfired. A confederacy of the Deccan Sultanates (excluding Berar) decisively defeated the Vijayanagara army at the Battle of Talikota (also known as the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi). Rama Raya was captured and executed. The victorious armies brutally sacked the capital city of Vijayanagara. Robert Sewell, in his book A Forgotten Empire (1900), provides a vivid account of the city’s destruction, stating, “Never perhaps in the history of the world has such havoc been wrought, and wrought so suddenly, on so splendid a city.”

  • Aravidu Dynasty (c. 1570–1646 CE)

    • Rama Raya’s brother, Tirumala Deva Raya, salvaged what he could from the ruins and established a new capital at Penukonda, founding the Aravidu dynasty. The empire continued to exist for about another century, but its former glory was never recovered.

Administration of Vijayanagara Empire

  • Central and Provincial Administration: The king was the supreme authority. The empire was divided into provinces called Mandalams (or Rajyas), headed by a governor (Mandalesvara), often from the royal family. Mandalams were subdivided into Nadus (districts), which were further divided into Sthalas (sub-districts) and finally into Gramas (villages).
  • The Nayankara System: This was the most important feature of the provincial administration. The top military officers were known as Nayakas or Poligars. They were granted territories called Amaram in lieu of salary. The Nayakas were responsible for maintaining a fixed number of troops for the king, paying an annual tribute, and administering their territory. This system ensured military mobilization but also fostered decentralizing tendencies, as powerful Nayakas often acted as independent rulers.
  • Village Administration (Ayagar System): The village was a self-sufficient unit managed by a body of 12 functionaries, collectively known as the Ayagars. They were granted tax-free lands (manyams) for their services and held their offices hereditarily.
  • Revenue and Justice: The main source of income was land revenue, typically fixed at one-sixth of the produce. Other sources included customs duties from ports like Motupalli, professional taxes, and tributes from feudatories. Justice was harsh, with punishments like mutilation and death by being thrown to elephants.
  • Society and Religion: The rulers were patrons of both Shaivism and Vaishnavism. They were known for their policy of religious tolerance, also supporting Jains and Muslims. The society was well-structured, and women held a respectable position, with some being educated and employed in various roles, including as accountants and bodyguards.

Bahmani Kingdom (c. 1347–1527 CE)

  • Foundation: The kingdom was established in 1347 CE by Alauddin Hasan, an Afghan officer in the service of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He led a successful revolt of Deccan nobles against the Sultanate. He assumed the title Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah, and established his capital at Gulbarga. The suffix ‘Bahman Shah’ is sometimes linked to his claim of descent from the mythical Persian hero Bahman, or as a tribute to his former Brahmin master, Gangu.
  • Conflict with Vijayanagara: A constant feature of Bahmani history was the protracted conflict with the Vijayanagara Empire, primarily over the control of the fertile Raichur Doab (the land between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers) and the Krishna-Godavari delta.
  • Important Rulers:
    • Firoz Shah Bahmani (c. 1397–1422 CE) was a learned king, proficient in several languages. He encouraged the induction of Hindus into the administration on a large scale.
  • Mahmud Gawan (Prime Minister, c. 1463–1481 CE):
    • A Persian merchant by origin, he rose to become the prime minister (Wakil-us-Sultanat) under Sultan Muhammad Shah III. He was an exceptional statesman and military general.
    • Reforms: He streamlined the administration, reformed the revenue system based on land measurement, and disciplined the army. To curb the power of provincial governors, he divided each of the existing four provinces into two, placing some districts directly under central control. He also established a madrasa (college) in the capital, Bidar, which was a great centre of learning. He is also credited with inviting Persian chemists to teach the army the use of gunpowder.
    • Downfall: His reforms and his status as an Afaqi (foreigner) angered the Deccani (local) faction of nobles. They forged a treasonous letter in his name and presented it to the Sultan, who, in a drunken state, ordered his execution in 1481. Gawan’s death marked the beginning of the end for the Bahmani Kingdom, as it removed the one figure capable of holding the factious nobility together.
  • Disintegration: After Gawan’s death, the kingdom weakened rapidly. Provincial governors declared independence, and by the 1520s, the Bahmani Kingdom had fragmented into five independent Deccan Sultanates:
    1. Adil Shahi of Bijapur
    2. Qutb Shahi of Golconda
    3. Nizam Shahi of Ahmednagar
    4. Imad Shahi of Berar
    5. Barid Shahi of Bidar

Prelims Pointers

  • Kakatiya Capital: Warangal (Orugallu).
  • Feudatories of: Rashtrakutas and Western Chalukyas.
  • Female Kakatiya Ruler: Rudramadevi.
  • Foreign Traveller in Kakatiya Kingdom: Marco Polo.
  • UNESCO Site (Kakatiya): Ramappa Temple (Rudreshwara Temple), declared in 2021.
  • Famous Diamond: Kohinoor diamond was in the possession of Kakatiya rulers before being taken by Malik Kafur.
  • Major Kakatiya Port: Motupalli.
  • Hoysala Capital: Dwarasamudra (modern Halebidu).
  • Hoysala Architectural Style: Vesara style, with stellate (star-shaped) plans. Examples: Temples at Belur, Halebidu.
  • Yadava Capital: Devagiri (later Daulatabad).
  • Founder of Yadava Sovereignty: Bhillama V.
  • Eastern Ganga Dynasty Capital: Kalinganagara.
  • Temples built by Eastern Gangas:
    1. Jagannath Temple at Puri (initiated by Anantavarman Chodaganga).
    2. Konark Sun Temple (built by Narasimhadeva I).
  • Successors to Eastern Gangas: Gajapati Dynasty.
  • Founder of Vijayanagara Empire: Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (1336 CE).
  • Vijayanagara Capital: Vijayanagara (modern Hampi), on the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
  • Royal Emblem of Sangama Dynasty: Varaha (the boar).
  • Sanskrit Epic on Madurai Conquest: Madhura Vijayam by Gangadevi.
  • Vijayanagara Ruler who built a dam on Tungabhadra: Deva Raya I.
  • Vijayanagara Ruler known as ‘Gajabetekara’: Deva Raya II.
  • First Usurpation in Vijayanagara: By Saluva Narasimha, founding the Saluva Dynasty.
  • Second Usurpation in Vijayanagara: By Vira Narasimha Raya, founding the Tuluva Dynasty.
  • Greatest Vijayanagara Ruler: Krishnadevaraya (Tuluva Dynasty).
  • Krishnadevaraya’s literary work (Telugu): Amuktamalyada.
  • ‘Ashtadiggajas’: The eight great Telugu poets in Krishnadevaraya’s court.
  • Foreign Travellers during Vijayanagara: Abdur Razzaq (Persia), Nicolo de Conti (Italy), Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz (Portugal).
  • Battle of Talikota: 1565 CE. Fought between Vijayanagara (led by Aliya Rama Raya) and the Deccan Sultanates.
  • Administrative Divisions (Vijayanagara): Mandalam → Nadu → Sthala → Grama.
  • Vijayanagara Military/Land Grant System: Nayankara System (land granted was Amaram).
  • Vijayanagara Village Administration: Ayagar System.
  • Founder of Bahmani Kingdom: Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (Hasan Gangu) in 1347 CE.
  • Bahmani Capital: Initially Gulbarga, later shifted to Bidar.
  • Primary cause of Vijayanagara-Bahmani conflict: Control over the Raichur Doab.
  • Famous Bahmani Prime Minister: Mahmud Gawan.
  • Factionalism in Bahmani court: Between Deccanis (locals) and Afaqis (foreigners).
  • The Five Deccan Sultanates:
    1. Bijapur (Adil Shahi)
    2. Golconda (Qutb Shahi)
    3. Ahmednagar (Nizam Shahi)
    4. Berar (Imad Shahi)
    5. Bidar (Barid Shahi)

Mains Insights

  • Historiography of the Vijayanagara State:

    • As a ‘Hindu’ bulwark: Traditional historians, including Nilakanta Sastri, viewed the Vijayanagara Empire primarily as a bastion of Hindu religion and culture against the expansion of Islamic sultanates in the south. The role of sage Vidyaranya in its founding is often cited to support this.
    • As a ‘War State’: Historian Burton Stein challenged this, arguing that Vijayanagara was a ‘segmentary state’ and a ‘war state’. He proposed that its political and administrative structures, particularly the Nayankara system, were geared towards constant military preparedness and expansion, driven by pragmatic needs rather than purely religious ideology.
    • Syncretic Culture: Recent scholarship emphasizes the syncretic nature of the state. The induction of Muslims in the army by Deva Raya II, the adoption of Indo-Islamic architectural features (‘Kamalapuram’ style), and the use of the title ‘Sultan among Hindu Kings’ indicate a polity that was culturally pluralistic and politically pragmatic.

  • The Nayankara System: A Double-Edged Sword

    • Cause (Need for the System): The vastness of the empire and the need for a decentralised military command to manage far-flung territories and constant warfare led to the evolution of the Nayankara system.
    • Effect (Strength): It ensured a quick and efficient mobilisation of a large feudal army without placing the entire financial burden on the central treasury. It also helped in bringing virgin lands under cultivation and maintaining local law and order.
    • Effect (Weakness): It created powerful, semi-independent military chiefs who often rebelled against the central authority, especially during the reign of a weak king. This inherent centrifugal tendency contributed significantly to the empire’s eventual decline and fragmentation after the Battle of Talikota.

  • Cause and Effect: The Battle of Talikota (1565)

    • Causes:
      1. Political: Aliya Rama Raya’s diplomatic strategy of ‘divide and rule’, where he frequently interfered in the internal conflicts of the Deccan Sultanates and switched allegiances, created deep resentment and united them against a common enemy.
      2. Economic: Long-standing rivalry over the fertile and resource-rich Raichur Doab.
      3. Immediate Trigger: Insults hurled at the Sultans’ envoys by Rama Raya and the sacking of Bijapur and Golconda territories by the Vijayanagara army.
    • Effects:
      1. Decisive Military Defeat: The catastrophic defeat led to the execution of Rama Raya and the complete collapse of the central authority of the empire.
      2. Destruction of the Capital: The city of Vijayanagara was systematically plundered and destroyed, leading to an abrupt end of its economic and cultural vibrancy.
      3. Political Fragmentation: While the empire survived under the Aravidu dynasty from Penukonda, it lost its hegemonic power. Former Nayakas became virtually independent, leading to the rise of regional powers like Mysore, Madurai, and Tanjore.
      4. Shift in Southern Power Dynamics: The battle permanently altered the balance of power in the Deccan, strengthening the Sultanates for a brief period before they themselves were consumed by Mughal expansion.

  • Mahmud Gawan and the Decline of the Bahmani Kingdom:

    • Problem: The Bahmani Kingdom was plagued by intense factional rivalry between the Deccanis (old nobility of local origin) and the Afaqis (newcomers from Persia, Turkey, etc.).
    • Gawan’s Solution: His administrative and military reforms were aimed at strengthening the Sultan’s authority and curbing the power of the provincial nobles, who were mostly Deccanis.
    • Consequence: These reforms, coupled with his Afaqi origin and immense success, made him a target of the Deccani faction. His judicial murder removed the most competent administrator and commander, creating a power vacuum. This exacerbated the internal conflicts, paralysed the state, and directly led to its disintegration into five successor sultanates.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. Who of the following founded a new city on the south bank of a tributary to river Krishna and undertook to rule his new kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom all the land south of the river was supposed to belong? (UPSC CSE 2015) (a) Amoghavarsha I (b) Ballala II (c) Harihara I (d) Prataparudra II

    Answer: (c) Harihara I. He and his brother Bukka I founded the city of Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra (a tributary of the Krishna). They ruled on behalf of the deity Virupaksha.

  2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2019)

    1. Saint Nimbarka was a contemporary of Akbar.
    2. Saint Kabir was greatly influenced by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    Answer: (d) Neither 1 nor 2. Saint Nimbarka (13th century) and Kabir (15th century) predate Akbar (16th century) and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (16th-17th century). This question is related to the broader medieval period.

  3. According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the women in Vijayanagara Empire were expert in which of the following areas? (UPSC CSE 2021)

    1. Wrestling
    2. Astrology
    3. Accounting
    4. Soothsaying Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Answer: (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4. Fernao Nuniz gives a detailed account mentioning that women were employed as wrestlers, astrologers, soothsayers, accountants, and even as guards in the king’s palace.

  4. With reference to Indian history, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2022)

    1. The first Mongol invasion of India happened during the reign of Jalal-ud-din Khalji.
    2. During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, one Mongol assault marched up to Delhi and besieged the city.
    3. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq temporarily lost portions of the north-west of his kingdom to Mongols. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only

    Answer: (b) 2 only. The first major Mongol invasion was during the reign of Iltutmish (Genghis Khan reached the Indus). A major Mongol siege of Delhi did occur under Ala-ud-din Khalji led by Targhi. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq did not lose territory to Mongols; rather, he planned an offensive into their territory. This question is relevant to the Delhi Sultanate context of the regional kingdoms.

  5. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC CSE 2016)

    • King — Dynasty
    1. Nannuka — Chandela
    2. Jayashakti — Paramara
    3. Nagabhata II — Gurjara-Pratihara
    4. Bhoja — Rashtrakuta Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 3 and 4

    Answer: (a) 1 and 3. Nannuka was the founder of the Chandela dynasty. Nagabhata II was a powerful Gurjara-Pratihara king. Jayashakti was a Chandela king, not Paramara. Bhoja was a famous Paramara king, not Rashtrakuta. This question tests knowledge of various regional kingdoms.

Mains

  1. Krishnadevaraya, the king of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but was also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2016 - Question asked on Krishnadevaraya’s predecessor, adapted here for relevance)

    Answer: Introduction: Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 CE), the most illustrious ruler of the Tuluva dynasty, presided over the golden age of the Vijayanagara Empire. His reign was marked not only by military conquests and administrative consolidation but also by an unparalleled efflorescence of literature and learning, reflecting his personal intellectual pursuits and his munificent patronage.

    Krishnadevaraya as an Accomplished Scholar:

    • Krishnadevaraya was a polyglot and a distinguished writer himself. His magnum opus, Amuktamalyada, is a celebrated epic poem in Telugu.
    • Amuktamalyada is a masterpiece of Telugu literature that describes the story of Andal and her marriage to Lord Vishnu. More importantly, it is also a political treatise that lays down the principles of governance, statecraft, and the duties of a king, similar in vein to Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
    • He also authored a Sanskrit play, Jambavati Kalyanam, and other works, showcasing his mastery over multiple languages and literary forms.

    Patronage of Learning and Literature:

    • The Ashtadiggajas: Krishnadevaraya’s court was famously adorned by the ‘Ashtadiggajas’ (Eight Elephants), a collective of the eight most eminent Telugu poets of his time. This institutionalised patronage created a vibrant literary environment.
    • Prominent Poets: The group was led by Allasani Peddana, revered as ‘Andhra Kavitapitamaha’ (The Grandfather of Telugu Poetry). His major work was Manucharitamu. Other prominent members included Nandi Thimmana, Dhurjati, and Tenali Ramakrishna, whose wit and wisdom are legendary.
    • Patronage of Multiple Languages: While Telugu literature reached its zenith during his reign, he also extended patronage to Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit scholars. His inclusive policy fostered a pan-South Indian literary culture. For instance, the Kannada poet Timmanna Kavi wrote a Kannada version of the Mahabharata.
    • Religious and Philosophical Learning: He patronised religious scholars and philosophers like Vyasatirtha, a prominent proponent of the Dvaita school of philosophy, further establishing his capital as a centre for intellectual and spiritual discourse.

    Conclusion: Krishnadevaraya’s reign was a true renaissance in South Indian literature. His personal contributions as a scholar, combined with his systematic and generous patronage of poets and thinkers, created an intellectual ecosystem that left an indelible mark on the cultural history of India. His legacy is not just that of a conqueror but of a true ‘Sahiti Samarangana Sarvabhouma’ (Emperor in the Battlefield of Literature).

  2. Explain the main administrative features of the Vijayanagara Empire with special reference to the Nayankara system. (Similar to questions asked on Chola and Gupta administration)

    Answer: Introduction: The administration of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646 CE) was a well-organized system designed to manage a vast, multicultural territory and sustain a powerful military machine. It blended features from its predecessors like the Cholas, Hoysalas, and Kakatiyas, but evolved unique characteristics, most notably the Nayankara system.

    Main Administrative Features:

    1. Central Administration: The King was the supreme authority, acting as the chief executive, military commander, and dispenser of justice. He was assisted by a council of ministers (Pradhani). The administration was divided into various departments dealing with revenue, military, and religious affairs.
    2. Provincial and Local Government: The empire was systematically divided into provinces (Mandalams or Rajyas), districts (Nadus), sub-districts (Sthalas), and villages (Gramas). Governors, often from the royal family, were appointed to rule the Mandalas with considerable autonomy.
    3. Ayagar System: At the village level, administration was carried out by a committee of twelve hereditary functionaries known as the ‘Ayagars’. They were responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting revenue, and managing village affairs in return for tax-free lands (manyams). This system ensured continuity and self-sufficiency at the local level.
    4. Revenue System: The primary source of income was land revenue, typically fixed at one-sixth of the agricultural produce. Other sources included taxes on professions, customs duties from extensive trade, and tributes from subordinate chiefs.

    The Nayankara System: The Nayankara system was the linchpin of the Vijayanagara military and provincial administration.

    • Concept: Under this system, the king assigned tracts of land called Amaram to military chiefs or commanders known as Nayakas.
    • Obligations of the Nayaka: In return for the land grant, the Nayaka was obligated to:
      • Maintain a stipulated contingent of infantry, cavalry, and elephants, which had to be presented to the king in times of war.
      • Pay a fixed annual financial tribute to the royal treasury.
      • Administer the territory under his control, maintain law and order, and dispense justice.
    • Nature of the Grant: The land was not granted in perpetuity and could be resumed by the king. The Nayakas were essentially representatives of the central authority.
    • Significance and Impact: The system was crucial for the empire’s military strength and expansion. However, it also fostered powerful, semi-independent feudatories. The stability of the empire depended on the ability of the central ruler to control these Nayakas. After the weakening of the central authority post-Battle of Talikota, many of these Nayakas declared independence, leading to the fragmentation of the empire.

    Conclusion: The Vijayanagara administration was a pragmatic and effective structure that balanced central authority with local autonomy. While the Ayagar system ensured stability at the grassroots, the Nayankara system provided the military muscle for the empire’s sustenance, even though its inherent decentralizing tendencies ultimately contributed to its decline.

  3. Analyze the causes and consequences of the Battle of Talikota (1565). Why is it considered a watershed moment in the history of South India?

    Answer: Introduction: The Battle of Talikota, fought on January 23, 1565, between the Vijayanagara Empire and a confederacy of Deccan Sultanates, is a pivotal event in South Indian history. It resulted in the catastrophic defeat of Vijayanagara, leading to the collapse of the last great indigenous empire of the South and fundamentally altering the region’s political landscape.

    Causes of the Battle:

    1. Persistent Geopolitical Rivalry: For over two centuries, the Vijayanagara and Bahmani (and its successor Sultanates) were locked in a struggle for regional hegemony, primarily over the control of the fertile and strategic Raichur Doab.
    2. Aliya Rama Raya’s Aggressive Diplomacy: The Vijayanagara regent, Aliya Rama Raya, adopted a policy of interfering in the inter-state rivalries of the Deccan Sultanates. He would ally with one sultan against another to weaken them all. This ‘divide and rule’ policy, while initially successful, bred deep distrust and resentment among the sultans.
    3. Formation of the Deccan Confederacy: Realizing that Rama Raya’s policy threatened their individual existence, the sultanates of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golconda, and Bidar set aside their differences and formed a grand alliance to counter the common threat posed by Vijayanagara.
    4. Religious and Cultural Differences: While not the primary cause, the religious divide was used as a rallying cry by the Sultanates to forge unity and justify the campaign against the ‘infidel’ kingdom.

    Consequences of the Battle:

    1. Complete Military Annihilation: The Vijayanagara army suffered a devastating defeat. Aliya Rama Raya was captured and beheaded, leading to a complete collapse of command and morale.
    2. Sack of the Capital City: The victorious armies marched on the undefended capital, Vijayanagara (Hampi), and systematically plundered and destroyed it over several months. This act of vandalism obliterated one of the most prosperous and magnificent cities of the medieval world.
    3. Decline of the Empire: Though the Aravidu dynasty continued to rule from Penukonda and later Chandragiri, the empire was a pale shadow of its former self. It lost its prestige, wealth, and military power.
    4. Rise of Successor States: The defeat shattered the central authority, allowing powerful Nayakas in regions like Madurai, Tanjore, Gingee, and Mysore to assert their independence, leading to the political fragmentation of the South.

    A Watershed Moment: The Battle of Talikota is considered a watershed because:

    • End of an Era: It marked the end of the last great indigenous empire in Southern India, concluding a 230-year period of political and cultural dominance.
    • Shift in Power Dynamics: It decisively shifted the balance of power in the Deccan in favour of the Sultanates, albeit temporarily, as they too were soon weakened by internal strife and the northward expansion of the Mughals.
    • Cultural and Economic Dislocation: The destruction of the capital city was an irreparable blow to the commercial and cultural life of South India. It disrupted major trade routes and displaced countless artisans, scholars, and merchants.

    Conclusion: The Battle of Talikota was not merely a military defeat but a civilizational catastrophe for the Vijayanagara Empire. It was the culmination of long-standing political rivalries, precipitated by shortsighted diplomacy. Its consequences were profound, leading to the empire’s irreversible decline and redrawing the political and cultural map of South India.

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