1.2.2 - Medieval India Notes 05

Elaborate Notes

Mughal Empire: Sources

The historiography of the Mughal period is rich and diverse, primarily due to the tradition of court-sponsored chronicles and autobiographies.

• Baburnama (or Tuzuk-i-Baburi): The autobiography of Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur, it is a seminal work of Mughal literature.

  • Language and Translation: Originally written in Chagatai Turkic, a language Babur was proficient in. It was translated into Persian during Akbar’s reign by his noble, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, around 1589. This Persian version became the most widely circulated.
  • Content and Style: The work is noted for its candid and direct style. Babur provides detailed accounts of his life, his military campaigns, and his observations on the geography, flora, fauna, and society of the lands he conquered, including Hindustan. As noted by historian Stephen F. Dale in The Garden of the Eight Paradises (2004), the Baburnama is not just a political memoir but also a work of natural history and ethnography.
  • Historical Significance: It offers an invaluable first-person perspective on the political turmoil in Central Asia and the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India.

• Tarikh-i-Rashidi: Written by Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, Babur’s first cousin.

  • Context: Dughlat served under both Babur and Humayun. His chronicle covers the history of the Mughals of Central Asia (Moghulistan) and provides crucial information about Babur’s early struggles and Humayun’s reign, including his defeat by Sher Shah Suri.
  • Value: It serves as a complementary source to the Baburnama, offering an insider’s view of the political and military events of the period, particularly the dynamics between the Mughals and the Uzbeks.

• Humayunnama: Authored by Gulbadan Begum, Babur’s daughter and Humayun’s half-sister, at the request of her nephew, Emperor Akbar.

  • Unique Perspective: As one of the few historical works written by a woman in the medieval Islamic world, it provides a unique perspective from within the royal harem (zenana).
  • Content: It details the domestic life, social rituals, and political intrigues of the Mughal court. It sheds light on the relationships between the royal family members, particularly the fraternal enmity that plagued Humayun’s reign. Scholar Ruby Lal in Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World (2005) analyzes the Humayunnama to understand how Mughal women navigated and shaped the political landscape.

• Akbarnama: The official chronicle of Akbar’s reign, written by his courtier and ideologue, Abul Fazl Allami.

  • Structure: It is divided into three volumes. The first deals with Babur, Humayun, and Akbar’s ancestry. The second provides a detailed narrative of Akbar’s reign up to his 46th year (1602).
  • Ain-i-Akbari: The third volume is a unique document in itself. It is an administrative manual and imperial gazetteer, providing exhaustive statistical data on the empire’s administration, revenue systems, army organization, and social and religious customs. Historians like Irfan Habib have extensively used the Ain for their pioneering work on the economic history of Mughal India, such as in The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556-1707 (1963).
  • Ideology: Abul Fazl projects Akbar as the ‘Insaan-e-Kamil’ (The Perfect Man), a divinely inspired ruler destined to bring peace and justice to a contentious world.

• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: The autobiography of Emperor Jahangir.

  • Content: Similar to his great-grandfather Babur, Jahangir offers candid reflections on his reign, his policies (like the installation of the ‘Chain of Justice’ or Zanjir-i-Adl), his personal interests in art, painting, and natural history, and his struggles with addiction and family rebellions. It covers his reign until his 19th year, after which, due to failing health, the task of writing was delegated to Mutamad Khan.

• Padshahnama: The official history of Shah Jahan’s reign.

  • Authorship: Primarily written by Abdul Hamid Lahori, a pupil of Abul Fazl. It was conceived in three volumes, each covering a decade of Shah Jahan’s rule. Lahori completed the first two volumes.
  • Focus: The work glorifies Shah Jahan’s reign, focusing on courtly grandeur, military victories, and magnificent architectural projects like the Taj Mahal, presenting his era as the zenith of Mughal power and culture.

• Alamgirnama: The official history of the first ten years of Aurangzeb’s reign, written by Mirza Muhammad Kazim.

  • Context: Following the Timurid tradition, Aurangzeb commissioned this work. However, in his 11th regnal year, he discontinued the practice of commissioning official histories, possibly due to financial austerity or religious piety.

Babur (1526-1530)

• Origins and Rise: Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur, born in 1483, was a descendant of two great Central Asian conquerors: Timur (from his father’s side) and Genghis Khan (from his mother’s side). He inherited the small principality of Ferghana in 1494 at the age of twelve. His early years were marked by a relentless struggle against the Uzbeks, leading to him losing and regaining his ancestral city of Samarkand multiple times before he finally established a base in Kabul in 1504.
• Indian Context and Invitation: The Delhi Sultanate under Ibrahim Lodi was weakened by internal dissension. Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, and Alam Khan Lodi, Ibrahim’s uncle, conspired against him and invited Babur to invade, hoping to use him as a pawn. Some traditions, as noted by historians like Satish Chandra, suggest that Rana Sanga of Mewar also had an understanding with Babur, expecting him to plunder and leave, which would clear the way for Rajput dominance.
• First Battle of Panipat (1526):
  • Military Tactics: Babur’s army was numerically far inferior to Ibrahim Lodi’s force (estimates suggest around 12,000 to Lodi’s 100,000). His victory was a result of superior strategy and technology.
  • Tulghuma and Araba: He employed the Tulghuma tactic, an Ottoman flanking maneuver, where the army was divided into left, right, and center units, with flanking parties attacking the enemy from the rear. The Araba system involved placing carts tied together with ropes in the front, with spaces for cannons and matchlock men to fire from behind cover.
  • Artillery: This was the first major battle in Northern India where gunpowder firearms and field artillery were used effectively. Babur’s artillery was commanded by Ottoman experts Ustad Ali Quli and Mustafa Rumi.
• Battle of Khanwa (1527):
  • Context: Rana Sanga of Mewar forged a powerful confederacy of Rajput rulers and Afghan chiefs to challenge Babur. This was a decisive battle for the control of Northern India.
  • Babur’s Strategy: Facing a formidable and larger army, Babur strategically declared the battle a jihad (holy war) to rally his demoralized troops. He took the title of Ghazi (victor in a holy war) after the victory. This was a classic example of using religious rhetoric for political and military motivation.
• Consolidation and Death: Babur further consolidated his position by defeating Medini Rai in the Battle of Chanderi (1528), breaking the back of Rajput power, and defeating the combined forces of the eastern Afghans under Mahmud Lodi in the Battle of Ghaghra (1529). He died in 1530, leaving behind a nascent empire that was more of a military occupation than a consolidated state.

Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-56)

• Inherited Challenges: Humayun inherited an unconsolidated empire fraught with dangers. The Timurid tradition of partitioning the empire among sons meant his brothers—Kamran, Askari, and Hindal—were rivals rather than allies. The Afghans, though defeated, were not vanquished and rallied under the charismatic leadership of Sher Khan (later Sher Shah).
• Defeats and Exile: Sher Khan systematically consolidated his power in Bihar and Bengal. He outmaneuvered Humayun at the Battle of Chausa (1539), where the Mughal army was caught unprepared by a surprise attack. The final blow came at the Battle of Kannauj (or Bilgram) in 1540, where the Mughal army was decisively routed. Humayun became a fugitive, wandering through Sindh and Rajasthan before taking refuge in the court of Shah Tahmasp of Persia.
• Restoration: After 15 years in exile, Humayun, with Persian military aid, took advantage of the civil wars that erupted among Sher Shah’s successors. He recaptured Delhi and Agra in 1555 but died shortly after in 1556 from a fall in his library, the Dinpanah.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545)

• Rise to Power: Born Farid Khan, his grandfather was an immigrant from Afghanistan. He rose through the ranks from managing his father’s jagir in Sasaram, Bihar, to becoming the virtual ruler of Bihar and later uniting the Afghans against the Mughals.
• Administrative Reforms: His short but impactful reign is renowned for its administrative innovations, many of which were later adopted and refined by Akbar.
  • Law and Order: He established a system of local responsibility, holding the village headmen (muqaddams) and officials accountable for crimes in their jurisdictions. This made travel and trade exceptionally safe.
  • Infrastructure: He revived and extended the ancient Mauryan route, the Sarak-i-Azam (Great Road), now known as the Grand Trunk Road, connecting Sonargaon in Bengal to the Indus. He built sarais (inns) every two kos (about 8 km), which served as resting places, post offices (dak chowki), and intelligence hubs.
  • Trade and Currency: To facilitate commerce, he standardized customs duties, levying them only at two points: the entry point of the empire (e.g., at the Indus) and at the point of sale in Bengal. He introduced a standardized silver coin, the Rupiya (178 grains), and a copper coin, the dam, which remained the basis of Mughal currency.
  • Land Revenue: Building on earlier systems, he instituted a systematic land survey (zabt) using a measuring rope (jarib). The land was classified as good, middling, or bad, and the state’s share was fixed at one-third of the average produce. He issued a patta (title deed) to the peasant and collected a qabuliyat (deed of agreement), ensuring tenurial security.
  • Military: He revived Alauddin Khalji’s system of Dagh (branding of horses) and Chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers) to maintain a disciplined, centrally-paid army and prevent corruption.
• Culture and Architecture: He commissioned the Purana Qila (Old Fort) in Delhi and built his magnificent mausoleum at Sasaram, a masterpiece of Indo-Islamic architecture. His court poet, Malik Muhammad Jayasi, wrote the famous epic Padmavat in Awadhi during this period.

Akbar (1556-1605)

• Regency of Bairam Khan (1556-1560): At Humayun’s death, Akbar was only 13. His tutor and guardian, Bairam Khan, acted as regent. Bairam Khan’s most significant achievement was the victory in the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu (Hemu Chandra Vikramaditya), the Wazir of Adil Shah Suri. Hemu had captured Delhi and Agra and declared himself an independent king. The Mughal victory was crucial for the re-establishment of their empire in India.
• Military Consolidation: Akbar pursued a policy of systematic expansion. He annexed Malwa (1562), Gondwana (1564), and conquered the formidable Rajput forts of Chittor (1568) and Ranthambore (1569). His conquest of Gujarat (1572-73) gave the empire control over rich sea ports and maritime trade. He later conquered Bengal, Bihar, Kashmir, Sindh, and parts of the Deccan.
• Rajput Policy: Akbar’s policy towards the Rajputs was a mix of matrimonial alliances, military conquest, and integration into the Mughal nobility. He married Harkha Bai (often misidentified as Jodha Bai), the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber, in 1562. While he fought fierce wars against states that resisted, like Mewar, those who accepted his suzerainty were given high ranks (mansabs) and treated as partners in the empire.
• Battle of Haldighati (1576): This iconic battle was fought between the Mughal army led by the Rajput general Raja Man Singh of Amber and Maharana Pratap of Mewar. It was not a simple Hindu-Muslim conflict but a struggle between Mughal imperial authority and Rajput regional independence. Maharana Pratap was defeated but continued a guerrilla war from the hills.
• Religious Policy: Akbar’s religious views evolved significantly over his reign.
  • Tolerance and Abolition of Taxes: In a major departure from previous Sultanate practice, he abolished the pilgrimage tax in 1563 and the discriminatory jizyah tax on non-Muslims in 1564.
  • Ibadat Khana (1575): He established a “Hall of Worship” at Fatehpur Sikri for religious and philosophical discussions. Initially limited to Sunni theologians, the debates turned acrimonious, leading Akbar to open the hall to scholars of all faiths: Shia, Hindu, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Christian.
  • Mahzar (1579): This ‘Infallibility Decree’ declared that in case of conflicting interpretations of Islamic law among scholars (ulema), the Emperor’s decision, if in conformity with the Quran and for the good of the people, would be final. This asserted the state’s authority over the orthodox clergy.
  • Din-i-Ilahi (or Tauhid-i-Ilahi, 1582): This was not a new religion but an eclectic spiritual order or a form of discipleship centered on Akbar. It drew elements from various religions and promoted a syncretic philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace). It emphasized devotion to the emperor as a spiritual guide and had very few adherents.

Jahangir (1605-1627)

• Continuity and Challenges: Jahangir (born Salim) largely continued his father’s administrative and religious policies. However, his reign was marked by a lack of significant military conquests, particularly in the Deccan, where the Abyssinian general Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar effectively checked Mughal expansion.
• Nur Jahan’s Influence: His influential Persian wife, Nur Jahan, formed a powerful clique (the junta) and wielded considerable administrative power, especially during Jahangir’s later years when his health declined due to alcoholism. Her dominance led to a rebellion by Prince Khurram (the future Shah Jahan).
• Art and European Contact: Jahangir was a great patron of painting, and Mughal miniature painting reached its zenith under his reign. His reign also saw increased contact with Europeans. The English East India Company sent an envoy, Sir Thomas Roe, to his court, who secured a farman to trade and establish factories.

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

• The “Golden Age”: Shah Jahan’s reign is often called the Golden Age of Mughal architecture. He commissioned iconic structures like the Taj Mahal in Agra, the Red Fort and Jama Masjid in his new capital Shahjahanabad (Delhi), and the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore.
• Administration and Economy: The empire was largely prosperous, and administrative machinery functioned smoothly. However, his extensive building projects and military campaigns (like the failed attempts to recapture Kandahar from the Persians) placed a heavy strain on the state treasury.
• War of Succession: In 1657, Shah Jahan’s illness triggered a brutal war of succession among his four sons: Dara Shukoh (the designated heir, a liberal intellectual), Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad. Aurangzeb, a skilled general and administrator, emerged victorious after defeating and executing his brothers. He imprisoned his father, Shah Jahan, in the Agra Fort, where he died in 1666.

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Prelims Pointers

• Baburnama: Autobiography of Babur, originally in Chagatai Turkic. Translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.
• Humayunnama: Written by Gulbadan Begum, Babur’s daughter.
• Akbarnama: Written by Abul Fazl. Its third volume is the Ain-i-Akbari.
• Padshahnama: Official history of Shah Jahan, written by Abdul Hamid Lahori.
• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: Autobiography of Jahangir.
• Alamgirnama: History of the first 10 years of Aurangzeb’s reign, by Mirza Muhammad Kazim.
• First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi using Tulghuma (flanking tactics) and Araba (cart barricade) with artillery.
• Battle of Khanwa (1527): Babur defeated Rana Sanga. Babur adopted the title of Ghazi.
• Battle of Ghaghra (1529): Babur defeated the Afghans under Mahmud Lodi.
• Battle of Chausa (1539) and Battle of Kannauj (1540): Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun.
• Sher Shah Suri: Original name was Farid. His administrative reforms included:
  1. Standardized silver Rupiya and copper dam.
  2. Built roads and sarais (inns). Rebuilt the Grand Trunk Road.
  3. Customs duty collected only at two points.
  4. Revived Dagh (horse branding) and Chehra (soldier’s descriptive roll).
  5. Introduced land measurement and issued Patta and Qabuliyat.
• Malik Muhammad Jayasi: Author of Padmavat, was a contemporary of Sher Shah.
• Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Akbar’s forces (led by Bairam Khan) defeated Hemu.
• Battle of Haldighati (1576): Fought between Maharana Pratap and Mughal forces led by Raja Man Singh.
• Akbar’s Policies:
  • Abolished Pilgrimage Tax (1563) and Jizyah (1564).
  • Built Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 for religious debates.
  • Issued Mahzar (Decree of Infallibility) in 1579.
  • Propounded Din-i-Ilahi (or Tauhid-i-Ilahi) in 1582.
• Navratnas of Akbar:
  • Todar Mal: Revenue minister, instrumental in the Dahsala System (bandobast system).
  • Faizi: Translated Bhaskara II’s mathematical work Lilavati into Persian.
  • Tansen: Original name Ramtanu Pandey (or Tanna Mishra). Given the title Mian by Akbar.
• Sir Thomas Roe: English envoy from King James I to the court of Jahangir.
• Malik Ambar: Abyssinian general of Ahmadnagar who challenged the Mughals in the Deccan.
• Shah Jahan: His reign is known for architectural marvels like the Taj Mahal and Red Fort. He founded the city of Shahjahanabad.

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Mains Insights

1. Continuity and Change in Administration:

   • Cause-Effect: Sher Shah Suri’s administrative reforms were not entirely novel but were a brilliant synthesis and rigorous implementation of earlier practices. These reforms directly laid the foundation for Akbar’s more elaborate and stable administrative structure. Todar Mal, who served both, was a key link. The zabt system, currency standardization, and infrastructure development under Sher Shah provided a blueprint that the Mughals perfected and scaled up, leading to imperial stability.
   • Historiographical View: Historians like J.L. Mehta argue that Sher Shah was a greater state-builder than Babur and Humayun, and his reign, though short, was a crucial interlude that demonstrated the possibility of effective governance, which Akbar later realized.

2. The Nature of the Mughal State under Akbar:

   • Debate: Was Akbar’s state a theocracy or a secular entity? Akbar’s policies like the abolition of jizyah, patronage to non-Muslims, and the concept of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace) suggest a move towards a more inclusive, non-sectarian state. His Mahzar and Din-i-Ilahi were attempts to subordinate religious authority to imperial authority.
   • Analytical Perspective: However, the state was not “secular” in the modern sense. The emperor retained a semi-divine status (‘Insaan-e-Kamil’). Historian Athar Ali argues that Din-i-Ilahi was primarily a political tool to unify a diverse nobility in personal loyalty to the emperor, transcending religious and ethnic differences. It aimed to create a loyal ruling class.

3. Military Revolution and Empire Building:

   • Significance: Babur’s introduction of gunpowder artillery on a large scale in the Battle of Panipat is often cited as a “military revolution” in India. This technological superiority was a key factor in the initial Mughal victories against numerically superior Indian armies.
   • Analysis: While crucial, technology alone was not sufficient. Babur’s tactical genius (Tulghuma), discipline, and leadership were equally important. Over time, Indian powers also adopted artillery, but the Mughals maintained an edge in organization and logistics for a considerable period, which was essential for building and sustaining their vast empire.

4. The “Golden Age” of Shah Jahan: A Critical View:

   • Perspective 1 (Traditional): Shah Jahan’s reign is celebrated for its unparalleled architectural achievements, political stability, and immense wealth, leading to the “Golden Age” label.
   • Perspective 2 (Revisionist): Historians like Irfan Habib point to the underlying economic strains. The monumental building projects, extravagant court, and costly military campaigns were funded by a heavy land revenue demand (often up to half the produce). This exacerbated agrarian distress, which became a major factor in the empire’s decline in the late 17th and 18th centuries. The “Golden Age” was largely confined to the imperial elite, while the condition of the peasantry may have worsened.

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Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar? (UPSC 2019)

   1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
   2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

   Answer: (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect because Jagirdars were primarily military/administrative officials who were given a right to collect revenue from a piece of land (jagir) in lieu of a cash salary. Zamindars were hereditary holders of land with revenue rights, and they also had to perform certain state duties. Statement 2 is incorrect because Jagirs were not hereditary and were transferable, while Zamindari rights were generally hereditary.

2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)

   1. In the revenue administration of Delhi Sultanate, the in-charge of revenue collection was known as ‘Amil’.
   2. The Iqta system of Sultans of Delhi was an ancient indigenous institution.
   3. The office of ‘Mir Bakshi’ came into existence during the reign of Khalji Sultans of Delhi. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (a) 1 only Explanation: Statement 1 is correct; Amil was a revenue collector. Statement 2 is incorrect; the Iqta system was an Islamic institution introduced in India by the Delhi Sultans. Statement 3 is incorrect; the office of Mir Bakshi, the head of the military department, was a well-established office under the Mughals, not the Khaljis.

3. Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait? (UPSC 2019) (a) Humayun (b) Akbar (c) Jahangir (d) Shah Jahan

   Answer: (c) Jahangir Explanation: While Akbar commissioned many illustrated manuscripts like the Hamzanama, Jahangir was a connoisseur of art who preferred individual portraits, albums (muraqqas), and realistic depictions of flora and fauna. Mughal painting reached its zenith under him.

4. Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was: (UPSC 2014 - relevant for context) (a) the mosque for the use of Royal Family (b) Akbar’s private prayer chamber (c) the hall in which Akbar held discussions with scholars of various religions (d) the room in which the nobles belonging to different religions gathered to discuss religious affairs

   Answer: (c) the hall in which Akbar held discussions with scholars of various religions Explanation: The Ibadat Khana, or “House of Worship,” was built by Akbar in 1575 at Fatehpur Sikri specifically to hold theological and philosophical debates among scholars of different faiths.

5. With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2023)

   Term	Description
   1. Aurang	In-charge of treasury of the State
   2. Banian	Indian agent of the East India Company
   3. Mirasidar	Designated revenue payer to the State
   Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
   (a) 1 and 2 only
   (b) 2 and 3 only
   (c) 3 only
   (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only Explanation: ‘Aurang’ was a Persian term for a warehouse where goods were collected before being exported. Banian was indeed an Indian agent/broker for the EIC. Mirasidar was a term for a landholder with hereditary rights, who was a designated revenue payer in parts of South India. So, pair 1 is incorrect, while 2 and 3 are correct. This shows how administrative and economic terms from the medieval/early modern period are tested.

Mains

1. Assess the contribution of the Sur dynasty to the administrative system of the Mughal Empire. (UPSC GS-I, Similar theme to asked questions)

   Answer: Introduction: The Sur dynasty, founded by Sher Shah Suri, ruled for a brief period of fifteen years (1540-1555), but its contributions to the administrative system were profound and lasting. Sher Shah’s reforms were so effective that they were not only adopted but also perfected by Akbar, laying the very foundation of the Mughal administrative edifice.

   Body: Sher Shah Suri’s key contributions can be assessed under the following heads:

   • Central and Provincial Administration: He established a strong central government and divided his empire into sarkars (districts) and parganas (sub-districts), each with a well-defined set of officials (Shiqdar, Munsif, etc.). This hierarchy of administrative units was largely retained by the Mughals.
   • Land Revenue System: This was his most significant contribution.
     • Measurement and Assessment: He introduced a system of land survey (zabt) based on a uniform unit of measurement. The state’s share was fixed at one-third of the average produce.
     • Patta and Qabuliyat: He gave peasants a patta (title deed) specifying the revenue demand and took a qabuliyat (agreement) from them. This provided tenurial security and clarity, a system later formalized by Akbar through the Dahsala system.
   • Currency and Trade: He standardized the currency by introducing a silver coin called the Rupiya and a copper coin called the dam. This bimetallic system became the standard for the entire Mughal period and beyond. He also rationalized customs duties to only two points to boost trade.
   • Infrastructure and Communication: The construction of a network of roads, notably the Sarak-i-Azam (Grand Trunk Road), and the establishment of sarais every few kilometers revolutionized communication and trade. These sarais also functioned as post offices (dak chowki), creating an efficient intelligence and postal network which the Mughals utilized effectively.
   • Military Reforms: He revived the system of Dagh (branding of horses) and Chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers) from Alauddin Khalji’s time. This helped in maintaining a disciplined standing army and was a cornerstone of the Mughal mansabdari system.

   Conclusion: Sher Shah Suri was a true innovator in governance. His administrative framework was not a mere placeholder between two Mughal reigns but a robust blueprint for imperial consolidation. Akbar’s genius lay in recognizing the efficacy of this system and expanding it across a vast empire, thereby ensuring the longevity and stability of Mughal rule. Thus, the Sur dynasty’s contribution was not just an influence but a fundamental pillar of the Mughal state apparatus.

2. Akbar’s policy of ‘Sulh-i-Kul’ was a manifestation of his political sagacity and inclusive vision. Elaborate. (UPSC GS-I, Based on recurring themes)

   Answer: Introduction: The policy of ‘Sulh-i-Kul’, or ‘universal peace’, was the cornerstone of Emperor Akbar’s state policy. It evolved from his deep interest in religion and philosophy and was a product of his political wisdom aimed at governing a diverse and multi-religious subcontinent. It represented a vision of an inclusive empire where all subjects were treated equally regardless of their faith.

   Body: The policy of Sulh-i-Kul manifested in several concrete actions and principles:

   • Administrative Inclusivity: Akbar abolished discriminatory taxes like the pilgrimage tax (1563) and the jizyah (1564). He opened the highest offices of the state to talented individuals based on merit, not religion. The induction of Rajputs like Raja Man Singh and revenue experts like Raja Todar Mal into the high nobility exemplifies this.
   • Religious Dialogue and Patronage: The establishment of the Ibadat Khana (1575) was a unique experiment where scholars from various religions engaged in dialogue. This intellectual curiosity led Akbar to patronize all faiths, granting land and funds for the construction of temples, churches, and shrines.
   • Separation of State from Orthodox Dogma: The Mahzar of 1579 was a political masterstroke that declared the emperor as the final arbiter in matters of religious interpretation, effectively curbing the power of the orthodox Ulema and asserting the primacy of the state’s interest.
   • Creation of a Common Ideological Ground: Sulh-i-Kul provided a common ideology for the diverse Mughal nobility. As articulated by Abul Fazl, it was based on principles of reason, justice, and tolerance. This ideology aimed to bind the ruling class—comprising Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, Rajputs, and Indian Muslims—in loyalty to the person of the emperor, who was projected as a spiritual guide for all his subjects.
   • Political Sagacity: Akbar understood that the stability of the Mughal Empire in India depended on the cooperation of its non-Muslim majority. His Rajput policy, a blend of matrimonial alliances and military power, was an extension of Sulh-i-Kul. By integrating Rajput chiefs as partners in the empire, he secured the loyalty of the most formidable martial clan in North India, ensuring peace and stability.

   Conclusion: Akbar’s policy of ‘Sulh-i-Kul’ was far more than mere religious tolerance; it was a sophisticated political strategy for imperial consolidation. It transformed the Mughal state from a foreign military conquest into an Indian empire, fostering a composite culture and an environment of peace that allowed for unprecedented cultural and economic efflorescence. It was a testament to his sagacity and a visionary approach to governance in a pluralistic society.

3. The Mughal school of painting reached its zenith under Jahangir. Discuss. (UPSC GS-I, 2022 - adapted)

   Answer: Introduction: The Mughal School of painting, which began under Humayun and flourished under Akbar, reached its pinnacle of refinement, naturalism, and technical brilliance during the reign of Jahangir. A discerning connoisseur and a painter himself, Jahangir’s personal passion for art steered the imperial workshop (karkhana) towards new heights, marking his era as the zenith of Mughal painting.

   Body: The distinctive features that mark the zenith of Mughal painting under Jahangir are:

   • Shift in Thematic Focus: While Akbar’s ateliers focused on large-scale illustrated manuscripts depicting epics, history, and court scenes (Akbarnama, Hamzanama), Jahangir preferred albums (muraqqas) and individual paintings. The focus shifted from narrative illustration to portraiture, scientific studies of flora and fauna, and allegorical scenes.
   • Unprecedented Naturalism and Realism: Jahangir had a keen interest in the natural world. He commissioned his leading artist, Ustad Mansur, to paint rare birds, animals, and flowers with scientific accuracy. Mansur’s paintings of the Siberian Crane and the Dodo are masterpieces of natural history illustration, earning him the title Nadir-ul-Asr (Wonder of the Age).
   • Perfection in Portraiture: Portrait painting achieved a new level of psychological depth and realism. Artists like Abu’l Hasan (titled Nadir-uz-Saman or Wonder of the Time) created lifelike portraits that captured the unique character and personality of the subject. The use of finer lines, delicate shading, and a more subdued color palette contributed to this realism.
   • Development of Allegorical Themes: Under Jahangir, paintings began to incorporate complex symbolic and allegorical themes, often glorifying the emperor’s power and justice. Famous examples include paintings of Jahangir shooting an arrow at the head of Malik Ambar or preferring a Sufi Shaikh over kings, which were rich in political symbolism.
   • European Influence: Jahangir was fascinated by European art, brought to his court by Jesuit missionaries and English envoys. Mughal artists began to incorporate European techniques like linear perspective, shading (chiaroscuro) to create depth and volume, and the use of halos, adding a new dimension to their style.
   • Specialization of Artists: Jahangir claimed he could identify the work of each artist in a single painting, indicating a high degree of specialization. Artists like Bishandas were masters of portraiture, while Ustad Mansur excelled in depicting nature.

   Conclusion: Jahangir’s reign represents the classical phase of Mughal painting, where technical virtuosity combined with a refined aesthetic sensibility. The shift from crowded, action-packed scenes to intimate, detailed studies of individuals and nature marked a maturation of the school. While Shah Jahan’s reign saw continued excellence, it became more formal and rigid, and the art form began to decline thereafter. Thus, the era of Jahangir rightly stands as the undisputed zenith of the Mughal school of painting.

4. Discuss the factors that contributed to the establishment of the Mughal empire in India by 1526. (UPSC GS-I, Based on core syllabus)

   Answer: Introduction: The establishment of the Mughal Empire in India with Babur’s victory at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 was not a sudden event but the culmination of various political, military, and technological factors. It was a result of Babur’s personal ambition and military genius intersecting with the internal weaknesses and political fragmentation of the Indian subcontinent.

   Body: The key factors contributing to the establishment of Mughal rule were:

   • Political Fragmentation of India: The Delhi Sultanate under Ibrahim Lodi was on the verge of collapse. It was plagued by internal rebellions and factionalism among the Afghan nobility. Powerful independent kingdoms like Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal, and the Rajput confederacy under Rana Sanga existed, but there was no single paramount power capable of uniting India against an external threat.
   • Internal Conspiracy and Invitation: The immediate trigger for Babur’s invasion was an invitation from disgruntled Afghan nobles. Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, and Alam Khan Lodi, an uncle of Ibrahim Lodi, invited Babur to challenge the Sultan, hoping to advance their own interests. This provided Babur with a legitimate pretext and crucial initial support.
   • Babur’s Military Superiority:
     • Advanced Military Technology: Babur’s army possessed a decisive technological advantage through its use of gunpowder. The effective combination of cannons and matchlock infantry, a novelty in North Indian warfare, proved devastating against the traditional Indian armies that relied on elephants and massed cavalry.
     • Superior Tactics and Strategy: Babur was a brilliant military strategist. At Panipat, he employed the Ottoman-inspired Tulghuma (flanking maneuver) and the Araba (cart-barricade) tactics. This combination of a strong defensive line with mobile flanking cavalry units was highly effective in encircling and destroying a much larger enemy force.
   • Babur’s Leadership and Experience: By the time he invaded India, Babur was a seasoned warrior, hardened by decades of warfare in Central Asia. His small army was well-trained, disciplined, and fiercely loyal to him. His ability to inspire his troops, as seen before the Battle of Khanwa where he used the cry of jihad to boost morale, was a critical leadership trait.
   • Weaknesses of Indian Armies: Ibrahim Lodi’s army, though vast, was poorly organized and lacked a capable commander. It relied on outdated military tactics and the use of war elephants, which often proved to be a liability when faced with artillery fire. The lack of unity among Indian rulers, especially between the Afghans and Rajputs, prevented any concerted effort to repel the invaders.

   Conclusion: The establishment of the Mughal empire was a classic case of a smaller, better-led, and technologically superior force exploiting the political vacuum and internal divisions of a larger but weaker entity. While the invitation from Indian nobles opened the door, it was Babur’s military genius and the strategic weaknesses of the Lodi Sultanate that ultimately led to the foundation of one of India’s greatest empires.

5. Critically examine the economic policies of the Mughals from Babur to Shah Jahan and their impact on the Indian economy. (UPSC GS-I, Analytical)

   Answer: Introduction: The period from Babur to Shah Jahan (1526-1658) witnessed the consolidation of the Mughal empire and the establishment of a sophisticated and largely uniform economic system. The Mughal economic policies, primarily centered on land revenue, trade promotion, and currency standardization, had a profound and complex impact on the Indian economy, leading to significant commercialization and urbanization, alongside underlying agrarian pressures.

   Body: Key Economic Policies and their Impact:

   • Land Revenue System:

     • Policy: The backbone of the Mughal economy was land revenue. The system was refined from Sher Shah’s model into Akbar’s Dahsala or Zabti system, which involved detailed measurement of land and calculation of revenue based on a ten-year average of local produce and prices. The demand was fixed in cash, which compelled peasants to sell their produce.
     • Impact (Positive): This system provided a stable and predictable source of income for the state. It also led to the commercialization of agriculture, as peasants increasingly grew cash crops like cotton, indigo, and sugarcane to meet the cash demand.
     • Impact (Negative): The revenue demand was high (typically one-third of the produce, rising to one-half under Shah Jahan). This left little surplus with the peasantry. The pressure to pay revenue in cash made them vulnerable to market fluctuations and local officials’ exploitation, leading to agrarian distress in some regions.

   • Trade and Commerce:

     • Policy: The Mughals actively fostered trade by ensuring law and order, building roads (like the Grand Trunk Road), and establishing a network of sarais. They standardized weights and measures and minted high-purity silver (rupiya) and copper (dam) coins, which facilitated monetized exchange across the vast empire.
     • Impact: This led to a flourishing of internal and external trade. A vast network of towns (qasbas) and urban centers emerged as hubs of craft production and commerce. India became a major exporter of textiles, spices, and indigo, attracting a massive influx of silver from Europe and the Ottoman Empire to balance the trade.

   • Urbanization and Craft Production:

     • Policy: The enormous wealth accumulated by the Mughal nobility was spent on luxury goods, creating a huge demand for high-quality crafts. The state-run workshops (karkhanas) produced goods for the imperial household.
     • Impact: This patronage led to the growth of major urban centers like Agra, Delhi, Lahore, and Ahmedabad. It also fostered a high degree of specialization in craft production, especially textiles (cotton and silk), metalwork, and shipbuilding.

   • Fiscal System and Expenditure:

     • Policy: The Mughal fiscal system efficiently extracted surplus from the countryside and concentrated it in the hands of the emperor and the ruling class (Jagirdars and Mansabdars).
     • Impact: While this funded the magnificent art and architecture of the era (e.g., the Taj Mahal), it also created a highly unequal distribution of wealth. As a non-hereditary nobility, Jagirdars had little incentive for long-term investment in their land assignments, often leading to short-term exploitation of the peasantry.

   Critical Examination: While the Mughal policies led to significant economic integration and commercial growth, often termed as proto-industrialization by some historians, the system had inherent contradictions. The prosperity was largely confined to the urban elite and the ruling class. The constant pressure on the peasantry for revenue extraction created a fragile agrarian base. The extravagance of Shah Jahan’s reign, in particular, strained the treasury, setting the stage for the economic and political crises that unfolded under Aurangzeb and his successors.

   Conclusion: The economic policies from Babur to Shah Jahan successfully built a powerful and wealthy empire. They fostered a vibrant monetized economy with extensive trade networks and urban growth. However, this impressive edifice was built upon a system of high agrarian extraction that kept the primary producers in a state of subsistence, creating underlying tensions that contributed to the empire’s eventual decline.