GS Notes

1.2.2 - Medieval India Notes 06

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Elaborate Notes

AURANGZEB (1658-1707)

Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal emperor, ascended the throne after a bloody war of succession against his brothers Dara Shukoh, Shuja, and Murad. His reign, spanning nearly half a century, is a subject of intense historical debate.

  • Title and Persona: Upon his coronation, he adopted the title ‘Alamgir’ (Conqueror of the World). His personal life was marked by austerity and piety, which sharply contrasted with the opulence of his predecessors. However, his reign is often criticized for its religious conservatism and political decisions that are argued to have contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.
  • Religious Policies: A significant departure from Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace with all), Aurangzeb’s policies were perceived as intolerant by many sections.
    • Reimposition of Jizya (1679): This tax on non-Muslims, abolished by Akbar in 1564, was reintroduced. Historian Satish Chandra in Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, argues that this was done to rally orthodox Muslims around him and to assert Islamic identity in the face of political challenges, particularly from the Marathas and Rajputs.
    • Destruction of Temples: His reign saw the destruction of prominent temples, including the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and the Kesava Rai temple in Mathura. While orthodox sources praise these as acts of piety, modern historians like Richard M. Eaton in Temple Desecration and Muslim States in Medieval India suggest that temple destruction was often a political act, aimed at punishing defiant local chieftains and asserting imperial authority, rather than a blanket policy of iconoclasm.
  • Deccan Policy: Aurangzeb’s obsession with the Deccan defined the latter half of his reign and proved to be a massive drain on the imperial treasury and manpower.
    • Phase I (1658-1668): The primary objective was to contain the rising power of the Marathas under Shivaji. He sent his maternal uncle Shaista Khan and later Mirza Raja Jai Singh to curb Shivaji’s influence. The Treaty of Purandar (1665), signed between Jai Singh and Shivaji, was a temporary diplomatic success for the Mughals. During this phase, Aurangzeb sought the cooperation of the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur and Golconda) against the Marathas.
    • Phase II (1668-1684): This period witnessed a strategic shift. After Shivaji’s escape from Agra in 1666 and his formal coronation in 1674, Mughal attempts to contain the Marathas proved ineffective. The Deccan states, particularly Golconda under the influence of its ministers Madanna and Akkanna, often tried to form a tripartite alliance with Bijapur and the Marathas against Mughal expansionism.
    • Phase III (1684-1707): Frustrated by the lack of success and the Deccan states’ collusion with the Marathas, Aurangzeb moved his court to the Deccan in 1681 to lead the campaigns personally. He pursued a policy of complete annexation, conquering Bijapur in 1686 and Golconda in 1687. However, this victory was pyrrhic. The annexation of these buffer states brought the Mughals into direct and unending conflict with the Marathas. The last two decades of his life were spent in a futile and exhausting war in the Deccan, an experience historian Jadunath Sarkar famously termed the ‘Deccan Ulcer’ which sapped the vitality of the empire.

MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

The Mughal administrative structure was a highly centralized, bureaucratic system, a synthesis of Indian and Perso-Islamic traditions. It was largely the creation of Emperor Akbar and was meticulously documented by his court historian Abul Fazl in the Ain-i-Akbari.

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

  • The Emperor: The sovereign, or Badshah, was the absolute head of the state. His authority was supreme, and he was considered the ‘shadow of God on earth’ (Zill-i-Ilahi). He was the commander-in-chief of the army, the chief executive, and the final court of appeal for justice.
  • Wazir/Diwan-i-Kul: The Wazir was the prime minister. During the early Mughal period (Babur and Humayun), the Wazir held immense power. Akbar, seeking to prevent any single official from becoming overly powerful, curtailed the Wazir’s authority. He separated the financial powers and vested them in the Diwan-i-Kul, the chief finance officer. The Diwan was responsible for all revenue and expenditure, management of Khalisa lands, and oversight of provincial Diwans.
  • Mir Bakhshi: He was the head of the military department, but not the commander-in-chief (a role held by the Emperor). His duties included:
    • Endorsing the appointment orders (sanads) of mansabdars.
    • Maintaining a register of all mansabdars.
    • Verifying the branding of horses (dagh) and the descriptive rolls of soldiers (chehra).
    • Serving as the head of the intelligence and information agencies of the empire, with a network of spies (waqia-navis) reporting to him.
  • Sadr-us-Sudur: This official was the head of the ecclesiastical department and the chief Qazi. His primary duties were to uphold Islamic law (Sharia), oversee charitable and religious endowments (waqf), and manage the distribution of subsistence allowances (madad-i-maash) to scholars and religious figures. Akbar placed restrictions on his power to grant land freely to prevent corruption and misuse of authority.
  • Mir Saman: He was the head of the imperial household and the royal karkhanas (workshops). These karkhanas produced a vast array of goods for the court, from luxury textiles and jewelry to weapons and cannons. The Mir Saman was responsible for all purchases, storage, and management of these workshops, making him a very influential officer.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

  • Subas: Akbar organized the empire into 12 provinces or Subas in 1580. The number grew to 15 by the end of his reign and reached over 20 under Aurangzeb due to new conquests.
  • Subedar (or Nizam): The governor of a Suba, he was the Emperor’s representative. His primary responsibilities were the maintenance of law and order, execution of imperial decrees, and general administration.
  • Diwan: He was the head of the revenue department in the province. Crucially, he was appointed directly by the Emperor and was answerable to the central Diwan-i-Kul, not the Subedar. This created a system of dual authority and checks and balances at the provincial level, preventing either official from becoming too powerful. The Diwan also supervised the distribution of agricultural loans (taqavi) to peasants in times of distress.
  • Bakhshi: The provincial Bakhshi performed duties similar to the Mir Bakhshi at the center, such as inspecting the military contingents maintained by the mansabdars stationed in the Suba. Often, this office was combined with that of the Waqainavis (news writer), who reported all provincial events directly to the center.
  • Sadr and Qazi: These officials managed religious and judicial affairs at the provincial level, acting as representatives of the central Sadr-us-Sudur.
  • Daroga-i-Dak: The head of the provincial intelligence and postal system. He maintained communication between the province and the capital through a network of postal stations (dak chowkis) with runners (mewars) and horsemen.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

  • Sarkar: Subas were subdivided into districts called Sarkars.
    • Faujdar: The chief executive and military officer of a Sarkar, responsible for maintaining law and order and assisting the revenue collectors.
    • Amalguzar (or Amil): The chief revenue collector of the Sarkar. He was responsible for the assessment and collection of land revenue and reported to the provincial Diwan.
  • Pargana: Sarkars were further divided into Parganas (sub-districts).
    • Shiqdar: The executive officer at the Pargana level, assisting the Amalguzar.
    • Qanungo: The keeper of all land records in the Pargana, a semi-hereditary position.
    • Kotwal: An officer in charge of urban administration (towns and cities). His duties, detailed in the Ain-i-Akbari, included maintaining law and order, regulating markets, and keeping a register of residents.
  • Village: The village was the lowest administrative unit.
    • Muqaddam: The village headman.
    • Patwari: The village accountant, who maintained land records.
    • The Mughal state utilized the services of hereditary local chieftains, known as Zamindars, for revenue collection and maintaining order in their respective areas, integrating them into the imperial administrative structure.

MANSABDARI SYSTEM

Introduced by Akbar, the Mansabdari system was the “steel frame” of the Mughal Empire, forming the basis of both its military and civil administration.

  • Concept: The word Mansab means rank or position. Every official in the imperial service was assigned a mansab. This rank determined three things: (a) his status in the official hierarchy, (b) his salary, and (c) the number of cavalrymen and transport animals he was required to maintain for the state.
  • Zat and Sawar: Initially a single number, the rank was later denoted by two numbers: Zat and Sawar.
    • Zat: Determined the personal rank and salary of the official. The higher the Zat rank, the more prestigious the official’s position in the court.
    • Sawar: Indicated the number of cavalrymen (tabinan) an officer was required to maintain.
  • Innovations:
    • Du-aspa sih-aspa: Introduced by Jahangir, this system allowed a select few mansabdars to maintain double (du-aspa) or triple (sih-aspa) the number of horsemen indicated by their Sawar rank, without raising their Zat rank. This was a cost-effective way to increase the size of the effective cavalry while rewarding trusted nobles.
    • Monthly Scale System: Introduced by Shah Jahan, this was a mechanism to adjust the salary of a mansabdar based on the actual revenue collected (hasil) from his assigned jagir, as opposed to the officially estimated revenue (jama). If the hasil was only half the jama, the jagir was termed shash-maha (six-monthly), and the obligations of the mansabdar were reduced proportionally.
    • Mashrut Rank: An innovation by Aurangzeb, this was a conditional rank, often an increase in the Sawar rank, tied to the performance of a specific duty or service for a temporary period.

JAGIRDARI SYSTEM

This was the mechanism for distributing revenue assignments to officials. It was intrinsically linked to the Mansabdari system.

  • Jagir: In lieu of a cash salary (naqdi), most mansabdars were assigned a territory whose estimated revenue (jama) was equal to their salary claim. This assignment was called a Jagir, and its holder a Jagirdar. The Jagirdar was entitled only to collect the assigned revenue; he had no judicial or administrative rights over the territory, which were exercised by imperial officials like the Faujdar and Amil.
  • Types of Land/Jagirs:
    • Khalisa: Lands whose revenue was collected directly for the imperial treasury.
    • Jagir: Lands assigned to mansabdars. These were frequently transferred (usually every 3-4 years) to prevent the Jagirdar from developing local roots and power bases.
    • Watan Jagir: Jagirs assigned to zamindars and local chieftains in their home territories. These were hereditary and non-transferable, granted as a way to integrate them into the imperial framework.
    • Altamgha Jagir: A special grant, usually given to Muslim nobles in their family towns, which was meant to be permanent and hereditary. This was introduced by Jahangir.
  • Jagirdari Crisis: During the latter part of Aurangzeb’s reign, the system came under immense strain. The constant warfare in the Deccan and the influx of new nobles (especially Deccani nobles) led to a situation where the number of claimants for jagirs far exceeded the available land (be-jagiri). This led to a scramble for the most productive jagirs, corruption, and exploitation of the peasantry. Historians like Satish Chandra and Irfan Habib have identified this ‘crisis of the Jagirdari system’ as a primary cause for the decline of the Mughal Empire.

LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

  • Zabti/Dahsala System: The standard system of assessment, perfected by Akbar and his finance minister Raja Todar Mal in 1580.
    • It involved precise measurement of land (zabt).
    • Land was classified into four categories based on the continuity of cultivation: Polaj (annually cultivated), Parauti (left fallow for a year or two), Chachar (fallow for 3-4 years), and Banjar (uncultivated for 5 or more years).
    • The state’s demand was fixed at one-third of the average produce of the last ten years (dahsala). This was calculated in kind but generally collected in cash based on prevailing local prices.
  • Ghalla Bakhshi (Crop-Sharing): This system was prevalent in some areas like Thatta, Kashmir, and parts of the Deccan. It had subtypes:
    • Batai: Division of the harvested crop at the threshing floor.
    • Khet Batai: Division of the standing crop in the field.
    • Lang Batai: Division after the grain was separated from the chaff.
  • Officials: Karoris were officers appointed in charge of a territory expected to yield a crore of dams in revenue. They were assisted by the Qanungos who maintained the local revenue records.

REGIONAL KINGDOMS (POST-DELHI SULTANATE)

  • Jaunpur: Founded by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, it became an independent kingdom under the Sharqi dynasty. It was a major center of learning and culture, often called the ‘Shiraz of the East’. Its most famous contribution is the Sharqi style of architecture, a unique blend of Hindu and Islamic styles, exemplified by the Atala Masjid. It was later re-annexed to the Delhi Sultanate by Bahlul Lodi.
  • Kashmir: The history of early medieval Kashmir is primarily known from Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (12th century).
    • Notable early dynasties include the Karkota and Utpala. Lalitaditya Muktapida (Karkota dynasty, 8th century) was a great conqueror and the builder of the magnificent Martand Sun Temple.
    • Later, under Muslim rule, Sultan Sikandar Shah (d. 1413) earned the epithet ‘But-Shikan’ (idol-breaker) for his iconoclastic policies.
    • He was succeeded by his son, Zain-ul-Abidin (1420-1470), who is celebrated as ‘Bud Shah’ (the Great King). He was a tolerant and enlightened ruler, who abolished Jizya, promoted Sanskrit learning, and patronized crafts like carpet weaving and papier-mâché.
  • Malwa: Based in the region of Mandu and Dhar. The kingdom saw rulers like Hoshang Shah. The last independent ruler was Baz Bahadur. His romantic association with the gifted singer Rupmati is a famous theme in folklore and art. Malwa was conquered and annexed by Akbar in 1562.
  • Gujarat: A prosperous kingdom due to its rich trade and fertile land. Its most famous ruler was Mahmud Begarha (1458-1511), who consolidated the kingdom and fought against the Portuguese naval power in the Indian Ocean. Gujarat was annexed by Akbar in 1572.
  • Assam: The Ahom kingdom, founded by the Tai-Shan migrant Sukhaphaa in the 13th century, resisted Mughal expansion for centuries. The Ahom state was known for its unique paik system of obligatory labour. The 15th-16th century saw the rise of the Vaishnavite Bhakti movement led by Sankaradeva, which had a profound impact on Assamese society and culture.

Prelims Pointers

  • Aurangzeb’s title: Alamgir (Conqueror of the World).
  • Aurangzeb re-imposed Jaziya in 1679.
  • Treaty of Purandar (1665) was signed between Shivaji and Mirza Raja Jai Singh (representing Aurangzeb).
  • Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur in 1686 and Golconda in 1687.
  • Diwan-i-Kul: Head of revenue and finance in the central administration.
  • Mir Bakhshi: Head of the military department.
  • Mir Saman: Officer in charge of the royal household and karkhanas (workshops).
  • Sadr-us-Sudur: Head of the ecclesiastical department.
  • Provinces were called Subas, governed by a Subedar.
  • The provincial head of revenue was the Diwan, appointed directly by the Emperor.
  • Loans given to peasants by the state were called Taqavi.
  • A district was called a Sarkar.
  • Faujdar: Administrative head of a Sarkar, responsible for law and order.
  • Amalguzar/Amil: Revenue collector of a Sarkar.
  • Kotwal: Officer in charge of town administration.
  • Muqaddam: Village headman.
  • Patwari: Village accountant.
  • Port administration was under an officer called Mutasaddi.
  • The two ranks in the Mansabdari system were Zat and Sawar.
  • Du-aspa sih-aspa system was introduced by Emperor Jahangir.
  • The monthly scale system (shash-maha, sih-maha) was introduced by Shah Jahan.
  • Khalisa land: Revenue collected directly for the royal treasury.
  • Watan Jagir: Hereditary and non-transferable jagir assigned to zamindars in their homelands.
  • Altamgha Jagir: Hereditary grant given to Muslim nobles.
  • Akbar’s land revenue system was the Zabti or Bandobast system.
  • The Dahsala system (introduced by Raja Todar Mal in 1580) fixed revenue based on the average yield of the last 10 years.
  • State’s share in the Dahsala system was one-third of the produce.
  • Four categories of land under Akbar: Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, Banjar.
  • Ghalla Bakhshi was a system of crop-sharing.
  • Banjaras: Nomadic communities who were caravan traders carrying bulk goods.
  • Sharqi dynasty ruled from Jaunpur, also known as the ‘Shiraz of the East’.
  • Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir, was written by Kalhana.
  • The Martand Sun Temple in Kashmir was built by Lalitaditya Muktapida.
  • Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir was known as ‘Bud Shah’ (the Great King).
  • Baz Bahadur was the last independent ruler of Malwa.
  • Mahmud Begarha was a famous ruler of Gujarat.
  • The Ahom kingdom was founded by Sukhaphaa.
  • Sankaradeva was the great Vaishnavite reformer of Assam.

Mains Insights

Aurangzeb’s Policies and the Decline of the Mughal Empire

  • Historiographical Debate: Aurangzeb’s reign is central to the debate on Mughal decline.
    • Traditional View (Jadunath Sarkar): Sarkar, in his History of Aurangzib, attributes the decline primarily to Aurangzeb’s religious bigotry and the reactionary policies against Hindus, which alienated the Rajputs and provoked resistance from Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats, fatally weakening the empire.
    • Revisionist View (Satish Chandra, Irfan Habib): These historians shift the focus from personality and religion to structural and institutional crises. They argue that the empire’s decline was rooted in economic and administrative problems, particularly the Jagirdari Crisis. The Deccan wars were not just a result of religious zeal but a political necessity to incorporate the resource-rich Deccan. However, the prolonged conflict created a shortage of jagirs, destabilized the nobility, and drained the treasury, leading to systemic collapse.
    • Conclusion: A balanced analysis would suggest that while Aurangzeb’s policies did exacerbate social and political tensions, the empire was already facing deep-seated structural flaws which his actions brought to a breaking point.

The Mughal Administrative System: Strengths and Weaknesses

  • Strengths:
    1. Centralization and Uniformity: The system of Subas, Sarkars, and Parganas, with a uniform set of officials, created a highly centralized and standardized administration across a vast empire.
    2. Checks and Balances: The clever division of power, such as between the Subedar and the Diwan at the provincial level, prevented the concentration of authority and reduced the chances of rebellion.
    3. Meritocratic Nobility: The Mansabdari system, in theory, was a merit-based bureaucracy where officials were constantly assessed and their jagirs transferred, preventing the creation of a feudal landed aristocracy.
  • Weaknesses:
    1. Over-centralization: The system was heavily dependent on the personality of the Emperor. A strong and diligent ruler like Akbar could make it work, but weaker successors led to inefficiency and corruption.
    2. Jagirdari Crisis: As discussed, the system’s inherent flaw was the potential for the number of claimants to outstrip the available revenue assignments, leading to a “crisis of the Jagirdari system” which destabilized the nobility and the army.
    3. Exploitation of Peasantry: The practice of frequent transfer of jagirs discouraged Jagirdars from investing in long-term agricultural development. Instead, it incentivized them to extract the maximum possible revenue during their short tenure, leading to peasant distress.

Continuity and Change in Indian Administration

  • The Mughal administrative framework was not created in a vacuum. It built upon the foundations laid by the Delhi Sultanate (especially Alauddin Khalji and Sher Shah Suri).
    • Continuity: Concepts like division into provinces, revenue collection based on measurement, and a strong central authority were inherited. Sher Shah’s land revenue reforms were a direct precursor to Akbar’s Zabti system.
    • Innovation: The Mughals, particularly Akbar, refined these systems to a much higher degree of sophistication. The Mansabdari system, with its dual Zat and Sawar ranks, was a unique Mughal innovation for organizing the nobility and the army. The systematic creation of a provincial administration with built-in checks and balances was another key contribution. This framework, in turn, deeply influenced the administrative structures of successor states and the British Raj.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term ‘Araghatta’ refers to: (UPSC Prelims 2016) (a) land grants made to military officers (b) waterwheel used in the irrigation of land (c) bonded labour (d) wastelands converted to cultivated lands Answer: (b) waterwheel used in the irrigation of land

  2. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar? (UPSC Prelims 2019)

    1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
    2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary. Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect because Jagirdars were primarily military/civil officials paid through revenue assignments, not judicial/police officers. Zamindars often had police/judicial duties at the local level. Statement 2 is incorrect because Jagirs were typically non-hereditary and transferable, while Zamindari rights were generally hereditary.)

  3. With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC Prelims 2020)

    1. Aurang - In-charge of treasury of the State
    2. Banian - Indian agent of the East India Company
    3. Mirasidar - Designated revenue payer to the State Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only (Explanation: Aurang refers to a warehouse or a place where goods are collected before export. Banian and Mirasidar are correctly defined.)

  4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC Prelims 2021)

    1. It was during the reign of Iltutmish that Changhez Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarezm prince.
    2. It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus.
    3. It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Kerala. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 Answer: (a) 1 only (Explanation: Taimur’s invasion was in 1398 during the reign of Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq. Vasco da Gama arrived in 1498 during the Sangama dynasty’s decline, not during Deva Raya II’s reign (1422-1446).)

  5. With reference to Indian history, who of the following were known as “Kulah-Daran”? (UPSC Prelims 2022) (a) Arab merchants (b) Qalandars (c) Persian calligraphists (d) Sayyids Answer: (d) Sayyids (Explanation: The Sayyids, who ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 to 1451, were known as Kulah-Daran as they wore a pointed cap (kulah).)

Mains

  1. Assess the role of the Mansabdari system in the consolidation of the Mughal Empire. (Not a direct PYQ, but a highly probable theme) Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define the Mansabdari system as a graded administrative service established by Akbar, which formed the ‘steel frame’ of the Mughal military and civil bureaucracy.
    • Role in Consolidation:
      • Military Consolidation: It created a large, disciplined, and centrally controlled army, replacing the old system of feudal levies. The system of dagh (branding) and chehra (descriptive rolls) ensured quality control.
      • Administrative Consolidation: It unified the nobility and bureaucracy under a single hierarchy. By assigning ranks to all officials, it integrated diverse ethnic and religious groups (Turks, Afghans, Persians, Rajputs, Indian Muslims) into the imperial service, creating a loyal and composite ruling class.
      • Political Consolidation: The system of transferable jagirs prevented officials from developing local power bases and becoming defiant. It ensured the Emperor’s absolute control over the nobility.
    • Limitations and eventual problems: Mention how the system’s success depended on a constant expansion of the empire to provide new jagirs. In its later phase, this led to the Jagirdari crisis.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the Mansabdari system was a crucial and innovative tool that enabled the Mughals to establish and maintain control over a vast and diverse empire for over a century and a half, though its inherent structural flaws contributed to its later decline.

  2. “Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy was a major factor in the decline of the Mughal Empire.” Critically analyze the statement. (Based on themes from GS Paper I) Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Briefly state Aurangzeb’s objectives in the Deccan: containing the Marathas and annexing the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
    • Arguments FOR the statement (How it led to decline):
      • Economic Drain: The continuous warfare for over 25 years drained the imperial treasury.
      • Military Exhaustion: The Mughal army was engaged in a prolonged and futile guerilla war with the Marathas, which sapped its morale and resources.
      • Administrative Breakdown: The long absence of the Emperor and the bulk of the nobility from North India led to a neglect of administration there. Law and order deteriorated, and regional powers (Jats, Sikhs) grew stronger.
      • Jagirdari Crisis: The annexation of the Deccan states led to the induction of a large number of Deccani nobles into the Mansabdari system, but there was not enough land (jagirs) to distribute, exacerbating the Jagirdari crisis.
    • Arguments AGAINST the statement (Counter-perspective):
      • Political Necessity: The Deccan states were often colluding with the Marathas, and their annexation was seen as a strategic necessity to secure the empire’s southern frontier.
      • Pre-existing problems: The empire was already facing structural issues like the Jagirdari crisis; the Deccan war only intensified them, it did not create them. The decline was a long-term process with multiple causes.
    • Conclusion: While not the sole cause, Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy was a significant catalyst that accelerated the decline of the Mughal Empire. The ‘Deccan ulcer’ (Jadunath Sarkar) fatally weakened the imperial structure by draining its economic, military, and administrative vitality, making a collapse almost inevitable.

  3. Discuss the distinctive features of the Mughal provincial administration. How did it help in maintaining central control? (Based on themes from GS Paper I) Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Explain that the Mughal provincial administration, systemized by Akbar, was a key instrument for governing their vast empire.
    • Distinctive Features:
      • Uniform Structure: Division into Subas, Sarkars, and Parganas with a standard set of officials across the empire.
      • Dual Authority: The most crucial feature was the separation of powers between the Subedar (governor, in charge of executive and military functions) and the Diwan (in charge of revenue).
      • Direct Imperial Control: Both the Subedar and the Diwan were appointed directly by and were accountable to the Emperor, not to each other.
      • Elaborate Information Network: A sophisticated system of intelligence gathering through waqia-navis (news writers) and harkaras (spies) ensured that the center was well-informed about provincial happenings.
      • Rotation of Officials: Frequent transfer of Subedars and other officials prevented them from entrenching themselves locally.
    • Maintaining Central Control: Explain how each of these features acted as a mechanism of control. The dual authority created checks and balances. Direct appointments and accountability ensured loyalty to the center. The information network acted as the ‘eyes and ears’ of the Emperor. Rotation of officials prevented the rise of independent power centers.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the Mughal provincial administration was a brilliantly designed system of checks and balances that allowed the central government to effectively project its power and maintain control over distant provinces, a key reason for the empire’s stability and longevity.

  4. Akbar’s policies were a product of his time, but they established a framework for governance that was both syncretic and effective. Elaborate. (Based on themes from GS Paper I) Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Briefly introduce Akbar as an emperor who consolidated the Mughal empire not just through conquests but through astute administrative and cultural policies.
    • Syncretic Framework:
      • Religious Policy: Explain Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace), abolition of Jizya and pilgrimage tax, patronage to non-Muslims, and discussions in the Ibadat Khana. This created an environment of religious tolerance.
      • Administrative Policy: The creation of a composite nobility by including Rajputs and other Hindus in high ranks of the Mansabdari system.
      • Cultural Synthesis: Patronage to a composite Indo-Persian style in architecture (Fatehpur Sikri), painting, and literature.
    • Effective Framework:
      • Mansabdari System: Created a loyal and efficient bureaucracy and a centralized army.
      • Land Revenue System: The Zabti/Dahsala system provided a stable and predictable source of revenue for the state while being less arbitrary for the peasant.
      • Provincial Administration: The system of Subas with checks and balances ensured effective control over a vast territory.
    • Conclusion: Summarize that Akbar’s genius lay in his ability to create a framework that integrated the diverse peoples of India into the imperial structure. His policies of syncretism and effective administration provided the ideological and institutional foundation for the Mughal empire’s golden age.

  5. Analyze the causes for the rise of regional kingdoms in 15th century India. What was their contribution to culture and architecture? (Based on themes from GS Paper I) Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Explain that the decline of the Delhi Sultanate, particularly after the invasion of Timur in 1398, created a political vacuum that led to the emergence of powerful independent regional kingdoms.
    • Causes for the Rise:
      • Decline of Central Authority: The Tughlaq dynasty weakened considerably, making it unable to control distant provinces.
      • Ambitious Governors: Provincial governors appointed by the Sultanate took advantage of the weak center to declare independence (e.g., Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa).
      • Geographical Factors: The vastness of the subcontinent and difficult terrain made it challenging for a central power in Delhi to maintain control over peripheral regions.
      • Timur’s Invasion (1398): This event shattered the prestige and power of the Delhi Sultanate, accelerating its disintegration.
    • Contribution to Culture and Architecture:
      • Jaunpur: Developed the unique Sharqi style of architecture, blending Hindu and Islamic motifs, seen in the Atala Masjid. It became a great center for learning, known as the ‘Shiraz of the East’.
      • Bengal: Developed a distinct regional architectural style using bricks and terracotta, seen in the Adina Mosque. Patronized Bengali literature.
      • Gujarat: Fostered a magnificent style of Indo-Islamic architecture seen in the Jama Masjid of Ahmedabad. It was a major center of maritime trade.
      • Kashmir: Rulers like Zain-ul-Abidin promoted a tolerant culture, patronized Sanskrit and Persian, and developed local crafts like shawl and carpet weaving.
    • Conclusion: The rise of regional kingdoms in the 15th century marked a period of political fragmentation but also one of significant cultural efflorescence. These kingdoms fostered unique regional identities and made lasting contributions to art, architecture, and literature, enriching the cultural fabric of medieval India.

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