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Elaborate Notes
Impact of Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1739)
Nadir Shah’s invasion of India in 1739 was a cataclysmic event that dealt a fatal blow to the already declining Mughal Empire. Its impact was multifaceted, affecting the empire’s prestige, military, economy, and political stability.
- Background and Context: Nadir Shah, the Afsharid ruler of Persia, rose to power amidst the decline of the Safavid dynasty. His invasion of India was motivated by the immense wealth of the Mughal Empire and the perceived weakness of its ruler, Muhammad Shah, often referred to as ‘Rangila’ for his hedonistic lifestyle. The Mughal court was rife with factionalism, notably between groups led by nobles like Nizam-ul-Mulk and Saadat Khan, which prevented a united response.
- The Battle of Karnal (February 1739): The Mughal army, despite its numerical superiority, was decisively defeated in a matter of hours at the Battle of Karnal. This exposed the technological and tactical obsolescence of the Mughal military machine. As historian Jadunath Sarkar notes in his work, Nadir Shah in India (1922), the Mughal army was an unwieldy, slow-moving mass compared to Nadir Shah’s swift, battle-hardened cavalry equipped with superior firearms.
- Loss of Prestige:
- Personal Humiliation of the Emperor: Muhammad Shah was taken captive and subjected to immense humiliation. Nadir Shah’s open insults and the emperor’s inability to defend his own dignity shattered the aura of invincibility and divine authority that had surrounded the Mughal throne for centuries. The Chagatai tradition of honour was irreparably damaged.
- Inability to Protect Subjects: Following a rumour of his death, some citizens of Delhi attacked Persian soldiers. In retaliation, Nadir Shah ordered a general massacre (qatl-i-aam) on 22 March 1739. Estimates suggest that between 20,000 and 30,000 civilians were killed. This event demonstrated to the populace that the Mughal emperor was powerless to protect even the residents of his own capital, fundamentally breaking the social contract between the ruler and the ruled.
- Economic Devastation:
- The sack of Delhi was systematic and thorough. Nadir Shah plundered the imperial treasury and the wealth of the nobility. The total loot was estimated to be worth crores of rupees at the time.
- Iconic treasures like the Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus) and the Koh-i-Noor diamond were taken to Persia. This was not just a material loss but a profound symbolic blow.
- The economic drain was so severe that the Mughal state was left virtually bankrupt. It could no longer afford to maintain a large standing army or pay its mansabdars regularly, exacerbating the Jagirdari Crisis, a phenomenon detailed by scholars like Satish Chandra in Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court, 1707-1740 (1959). The mansabdars, in turn, were forced to contribute from their own wealth, further weakening them.
- Political Fragmentation and External Threats:
- The invasion accelerated the process of political fragmentation. Powerful nobles, witnessing the emperor’s impotence, lost all faith in the central authority. Nizam-ul-Mulk, who had been a key figure in Delhi, permanently returned to the Deccan in 1740 to consolidate his own dominion in Hyderabad, securing it from Maratha incursions.
- The invasion exposed the vulnerability of India’s northwestern frontier. It set a precedent for future invasions. Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani), one of Nadir Shah’s ablest generals, followed his master’s footsteps, launching a series of invasions starting from 1748. The threat of Afghan invasions became a recurring feature of North Indian politics for the next half-century, culminating in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
Further Evidences of Mughal Decline
The period following Nadir Shah’s invasion saw the complete erosion of Mughal authority, with new powers dictating the political landscape.
- Maratha Ascendancy: The fear of another Afghan invasion under Ahmad Shah Abdali led the Mughal court to seek external protection. In 1752, the Wazir Safdarjung, on behalf of Emperor Ahmad Shah, signed a treaty with the Marathas. Under this agreement, the Marathas promised to protect the empire from internal and external threats in exchange for the right to collect chauth from large parts of North India and the subadari of Agra and Ajmer. This treaty effectively made the Mughal Emperor a client of the Marathas, signifying a complete reversal of the political hierarchy established by Aurangzeb.
- Puppet Emperors: The Mughals lost control over their own succession. The Marathas, through their agents in Delhi, began to act as kingmakers. For instance, Alamgir II was placed on the throne in 1754 by Imad-ul-Mulk with the backing of Maratha forces led by Malhar Rao Holkar. The emperor was a mere puppet, devoid of any real power.
- Shrinking Territorial Authority: By the mid-18th century, the direct authority of the Mughal emperor was confined to a small territory around Delhi and Agra. The rest of the subcontinent was controlled by a mosaic of powers:
- Successor States: Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad, which were technically part of the empire but functioned as independent kingdoms.
- Rebel States: Powers like the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Rohilla Afghans, who had carved out states through rebellion against Mughal rule.
- Autonomous Kingdoms: Pre-existing states like the Rajput principalities, Mysore, and Travancore, which had always maintained a degree of autonomy and now acted with complete independence.
Successor States: A Model of Regional Centralization
The successor states represent a key feature of the 18th-century polity, demonstrating a pattern of regional state-formation that blended Mughal institutions with local dynamics.
- Genesis and Nature: Founded by powerful Mughal nobles—Murshid Quli Khan in Bengal, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I in Hyderabad, and Saadat Ali Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk) in Awadh—these states never formally severed ties with the Mughal emperor. They continued to read the khutba (Friday sermon) and strike coins in the emperor’s name.
- Reasons for Maintaining Mughal Legitimacy:
- Political Ambition: As argued by historian Muzaffar Alam in The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India (1986), these nobles retained ambitions for influence at the imperial court in Delhi, seeking powerful positions like Wazir.
- Economic and Military Utility: The symbolic link to the empire provided legitimacy, facilitating smoother trade and revenue collection across regions, and offered the theoretical possibility of imperial support against rivals.
- Methods of Power Consolidation:
- Concentration of Offices: The founders systematically subverted the Mughal system of checks and balances. Traditionally, the Subadar (governor) and the Diwan (revenue chief) of a province were appointed separately and reported directly to the emperor. The new rulers consolidated both offices in one person, typically themselves or a trusted relative. For example, Murshid Quli Khan held both the posts of Diwan and Nazim (governor) of Bengal.
- Patronage and Nepotism: They appointed their own relatives and loyalists to key posts (mansabs, faujdaris), creating a loyal administrative corps. Saadat Khan appointed his son-in-law, Safdarjung, as his deputy in Awadh, ensuring a dynastic succession.
- Forging New Alliances with Economic Elites: This was a critical innovation. They built a symbiotic relationship with local and regional economic power-holders:
- Zamindars and Ijaradars: They either subdued rebellious zamindars or co-opted them into the revenue system. The practice of ijara (revenue farming) became widespread, bringing merchants and bankers into the land revenue system. By 1727 in Bengal, about 15 large zamindaris were responsible for collecting nearly half the state’s revenue.
- Merchants and Bankers: They provided a stable environment for trade by ensuring law and order and security of property. In return, these groups provided credit to the state and facilitated revenue remittances. The House of Jagat Seth in Bengal became so powerful that they controlled the mint, acted as state bankers for the Nawab, and financed internal and foreign trade. The Dutch referred to Fateh Chand (Jagat Seth) as the “richest merchant in the world” in the 1720s.
- Administrative and Revenue Reforms: They overhauled the revenue administration to maximize income. Murshid Quli Khan is famed for his rigorous land assessment (takhshis) in Bengal, based on detailed surveys of land productivity. This led to a significant increase in state revenue.
- Transformation of Jagirs: To secure the loyalty of the nobility, they often converted transferable tankha jagirs (salary assignments) into hereditary vatan jagirs (hereditary landholdings). This was particularly prominent in Hyderabad under the Nizam, altering a core tenet of the Mughal Mansabdari system which was designed to prevent nobles from developing local roots.
- Assertion of Autonomy: The final steps towards de facto independence included:
- Distributing mansabs and jagirs without imperial sanction.
- Conducting their own foreign policy—waging wars and signing treaties.
- Reducing and eventually stopping the flow of annual revenue to Delhi.
- Establishing hereditary, dynastic rule.
Rebel States: The Maratha Polity
The Marathas represent the most successful of the “rebel states,” creating a vast empire on the ruins of Mughal authority.
- Foundations: The Maratha kingdom was established by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, who was coronated in 1674. His success was built on guerrilla warfare tactics, a strong administrative system (Ashtapradhan), and the mobilization of Maratha identity against both the Bijapur Sultanate and the Mughals under Aurangzeb.
- Phases of Maratha Polity:
- 1680-1719 (Period of Instability): Following Shivaji’s death in 1680, the Marathas faced a prolonged and devastating war with Aurangzeb. After Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, the release of Shivaji’s grandson, Shahu, led to a civil war between his faction and that of his aunt, Tarabai. This period saw Maratha sardars and deshmukhs frequently shifting loyalties.
- 1719-1761 (Period of Stability and Expansion): Stability was restored under Shahu, largely due to the political acumen of his Peshwa (Prime Minister), Balaji Vishwanath. He consolidated Shahu’s position by securing the support of key Maratha sardars and financial backing from banking families. In 1719, he negotiated a treaty with the Sayyid Brothers in Delhi that granted the Marathas the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi over the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan, a landmark event that legitimized their imperial claims. The civil war formally ended with the Treaty of Warna (1731), which assigned a semi-independent kingdom based in Kolhapur to Shivaji II (Tarabai’s line).
- Post-1761 (Decline and Confederacy): The defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was a major setback. Though they recovered under Peshwa Madhavrao I in the 1770s, power had decisively shifted from the central authority of the Peshwa in Pune to a confederacy of powerful, semi-independent Maratha sardars.
- The Maratha Confederacy: The expansion of the Maratha empire was spearheaded by powerful chiefs who established their own spheres of influence. The main houses of the confederacy were:
- The Gaekwads of Baroda
- The Bhonsles of Nagpur
- The Holkars of Indore
- The Scindias of Gwalior This decentralized structure, while effective for rapid expansion, contained the seeds of internal conflict, which was later exploited by the British starting from the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82).
Prelims Pointers
- Nadir Shah was the ruler of the Afsharid dynasty of Persia.
- The Battle of Karnal was fought in February 1739.
- The Mughal emperor during Nadir Shah’s invasion was Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’.
- Nadir Shah took the Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond from India.
- Ahmad Shah Abdali’s first invasion of India occurred in 1748.
- The Mughals signed a treaty in 1752 placing them under Maratha protection against invaders like Abdali.
- Alamgir II was a puppet Mughal emperor installed with the help of the Marathas.
- Successor States and their Founders:
- Bengal: Murshid Quli Khan
- Hyderabad: Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I
- Awadh: Saadat Ali Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk)
- Jagat Seth was the title of the influential banking family in 18th-century Bengal.
- Ijara system refers to the practice of revenue farming.
- Rebel States: Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, and Rohilla Afghans.
- Shivaji declared himself Chhatrapati after his coronation in 1674.
- The civil war in the Maratha polity after 1707 was between the factions of Shahu and Tarabai.
- The Peshwa who consolidated Maratha power and aided Shahu’s victory was Balaji Vishwanath.
- The Treaty of Warna (1731) settled the dispute between the two lines of the Maratha royal family.
- Maratha Confederacy Chiefs and their seats:
- Scindia: Gwalior
- Holkar: Indore
- Gaekwad: Baroda
- Bhonsle: Nagpur
- Chauth was a tax equivalent to one-fourth of the land revenue, demanded by the Marathas for not ravaging an area.
- Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% tax claimed by the Marathas on the basis of being the hereditary head-collectors of revenue.
Mains Insights
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Nadir Shah’s Invasion: A Cause or a Symptom of Mughal Decline?
- As a Cause: The invasion acted as a catalyst that accelerated the decline. It destroyed the remaining military and financial power of the empire, shattered the emperor’s prestige, and exposed the hollowness of central authority, encouraging provincial governors and other powers to assert their independence.
- As a Symptom: The invasion was only possible because the empire was already in an advanced state of decay. Internal factionalism at the court, the weak and indecisive leadership of Muhammad Shah, the breakdown of the Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems, and military obsolescence created the power vacuum that invited foreign aggression. The invasion, therefore, was a symptom of a deeper, structural crisis.
- Conclusion: A balanced perspective holds that while the Mughal Empire was already declining due to internal weaknesses, Nadir Shah’s invasion delivered a coup de grâce from which it could never recover, transforming a gradual decline into a rapid collapse.
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The Nature of the 18th-Century Polity: “Dark Age” vs. “Regional Dynamism”
- The “Dark Age” View: Early colonial historians, and some nationalist historians like Jadunath Sarkar, viewed the 18th century as a period of chaos, anarchy, and economic decline following the collapse of the centralized Mughal state.
- The “Regional Dynamism” View (Revisionist Historiography): Scholars like C.A. Bayly (Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars), Muzaffar Alam, and Andre Wink have challenged this view. They argue that the 18th century was not a period of universal decline but one of political realignment and economic reorientation.
- Political Reconfiguration: The decline of the imperial center led to the rise of dynamic regional powers (Successor States, Marathas, Mysore) that established effective administrative and revenue systems.
- Economic Continuity and Growth: These regional states fostered economic growth by protecting trade routes and forging new alliances with merchants, bankers, and local gentry. The economic power shifted from imperial centers like Delhi and Agra to new regional capitals like Lucknow, Hyderabad, and Pune.
- Conclusion: The 18th century should be seen not as an end but as a transition, characterized by the decentralization of power and the emergence of vibrant regional polities which laid the socio-economic foundations for the subsequent colonial era.
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Continuity and Change in the Successor States
- Elements of Continuity: The successor states largely retained the Mughal administrative framework, terminology, and court culture. They used systems like Mansabdari and Jagirdari, and continued to acknowledge the de jure sovereignty of the Mughal Emperor for legitimacy.
- Elements of Change: The spirit and substance of these institutions were transformed.
- Administration: Power was centralized in the hands of the provincial ruler, ending the center’s checks and balances.
- Economy: A new political economy emerged, based on a close nexus between the state, zamindars, revenue farmers, and merchant-bankers.
- Society: The composition of the ruling elite changed, with “men of money” gaining political influence previously reserved for a lineage-based aristocracy. Jagirs became increasingly hereditary.
- Significance: This blend of continuity and change demonstrates the adaptability of Mughal institutions and the innovative state-building processes at the regional level.
Previous Year Questions
Prelims
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Who of the following was the founder of the autonomous kingdom of Awadh? (UPSC CSE 2019 - Modified) (a) Murshid Quli Khan (b) Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (c) Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (d) Safdarjung
Answer: (b) Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk Explanation: Saadat Khan, with the title Burhan-ul-Mulk, was appointed governor of Awadh in 1722 and laid the foundation for an autonomous state.
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Consider the following events in the history of India: (UPSC CSE 2021 - Logic based on chronology)
- Coronation of Shivaji
- Death of Aurangzeb
- Nadir Shah’s invasion of Delhi
- Third Battle of Panipat
What is the correct chronological order of the above events? (a) 1-2-3-4 (b) 2-1-4-3 (c) 1-2-4-3 (d) 2-1-3-4
Answer: (a) 1-2-3-4 Explanation: Coronation of Shivaji (1674), Death of Aurangzeb (1707), Nadir Shah’s invasion (1739), Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
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The term ‘Ijaradari’ in the context of 18th-century India refers to: (UPSC CSE 2018 - Modified) (a) A system of hereditary land rights. (b) A system of revenue farming to the highest bidder. (c) A military tax levied by the Marathas. (d) A grant of land in lieu of salary.
Answer: (b) A system of revenue farming to the highest bidder. Explanation: The Ijaradari system involved contracting out the responsibility of revenue collection for a specific area to an individual (Ijaradar) who paid a fixed sum to the state.
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With reference to the Maratha administration, who among the following was the Prime Minister in the Ashtapradhan council? (UPSC CSE 2022 - Modified) (a) Amatya (b) Peshwa (c) Sachiv (d) Sumant
Answer: (b) Peshwa Explanation: In Shivaji’s Ashtapradhan (council of eight ministers), the Peshwa held the position of Prime Minister, responsible for general administration.
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The primary reason for the signing of a treaty between the Marathas and the Mughal Emperor in 1752 was: (UPSC CSE 2020 - Logic based) (a) To form an alliance against the British East India Company. (b) To settle the long-standing Deccan conflict. (c) To protect the Mughal Empire from the invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali. (d) To formalize the Maratha rights of Chauth over Bengal.
Answer: (c) To protect the Mughal Empire from the invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali. Explanation: Following the first few invasions by Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Mughal court felt incapable of defending the frontiers and entered into an agreement with the Marathas for protection.
Mains
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Clarify how mid-eighteenth century India was beset with the spectre of a fragmented polity. (UPSC CSE 2017)
Answer: The mid-eighteenth century in India marked a period of profound political transformation characterized by the decline of the central Mughal authority and the rise of multiple regional powers, leading to a fragmented polity. This fragmentation can be understood through the following dimensions:
- Collapse of Imperial Authority: The Mughal Empire, once a pan-Indian behemoth, had shrunk to a mere shadow of its former self. Nadir Shah’s invasion in 1739 exposed its military and administrative hollowness, shattering its prestige. By the 1750s, the emperor was a puppet, first of powerful nobles and later of the Marathas, with his direct rule limited to the vicinity of Delhi.
- Emergence of Successor States: Powerful Mughal governors established virtually independent, hereditary dominions. These included Bengal under Murshid Quli Khan and his successors, Awadh under Saadat Khan and Safdarjung, and Hyderabad under Nizam-ul-Mulk. While they maintained a nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor for legitimacy, they functioned as autonomous states with their own administration, foreign policy, and economic systems.
- Rise of ‘Rebel’ States: Various groups that had challenged Mughal rule successfully carved out their own kingdoms. The Marathas were the most formidable, establishing a vast empire spanning from the Deccan to parts of North India. The Sikh Misls consolidated their power in Punjab, the Jats created a state around Bharatpur, and the Rohilla Afghans established their control in the Rohilkhand region.
- Foreign Invasions: The weakened northwestern frontier became a gateway for foreign invasions. Ahmad Shah Abdali’s recurrent raids from 1748 onwards destabilized Punjab and North India, culminating in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), which further complicated the power dynamics.
- Ascendancy of European Companies: The British and French East India Companies were no longer just trading entities. They began intervening in the succession disputes of regional states (e.g., Carnatic and Hyderabad), transforming themselves into significant political and military powers and adding another layer to the fragmented polity.
In conclusion, the mid-18th-century Indian political landscape was a complex mosaic of a decaying imperial center, dynamic successor states, aggressive new kingdoms, and ascendant foreign powers, all vying for supremacy. This fragmentation created a power vacuum that was ultimately filled by the British East India Company.
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The 18th century in India was a period of both decline and dynamism. Critically evaluate. (Hypothetical Question)
Answer: The 18th century in India is a subject of historical debate, often viewed through the twin lenses of imperial decline and regional dynamism. A critical evaluation reveals that the period was not one of uniform decay but of complex reconfiguration.
Aspects of Decline:
- Imperial Collapse: The primary narrative of decline centers on the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. The authority of the emperor vanished, leading to political instability at the center, “palace revolutions,” and a breakdown of the pan-Indian administrative structure.
- Warfare and Anarchy: The period was marked by incessant warfare among the rising powers, leading to devastation in certain regions. The repeated invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali caused immense loss of life and wealth in North India.
- Economic Disruption: The decline of imperial trunk routes and the insecurity in certain areas disrupted traditional patterns of trade. The financial bankruptcy of the Mughal state also had a cascading effect on the nobility and the economy linked to the imperial court.
Aspects of Dynamism:
- Regional State-Building: The decline of the center was mirrored by the rise of vibrant regional polities. Successor states like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad, and new states like the Maratha Confederacy and Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, developed efficient administrative and revenue systems.
- Economic Reorientation: As argued by revisionist historians like C.A. Bayly, the 18th century witnessed economic growth at the regional level. New regional capitals like Lucknow, Pune, and Seringapatam emerged as centers of consumption, craft production, and trade.
- Rise of New Elites: A significant social change was the rise of new elites, including revenue farmers, merchants, and bankers (e.g., the Jagat Seths in Bengal), who played a crucial role in state formation and the political economy. This indicates a dynamic and evolving social structure, not a stagnant one.
In conclusion, while the 18th century witnessed the undeniable decline of the Mughal imperial edifice, it was simultaneously a period of significant dynamism at the regional level. The decentralization of power led to the emergence of new political, economic, and social formations. To label the entire century as a “dark age” is to ignore the vibrant and creative processes of state-building and economic reorientation that characterized the era.
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To what extent was the crisis of the Jagirdari system responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire? (Hypothetical Question)
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Analyze the administrative and revenue reforms undertaken by Murshid Quli Khan in Bengal and their impact on the region’s autonomy. (Hypothetical Question)
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Examine the evolution of the Maratha polity from a centralized kingdom under Shivaji to a decentralized confederacy under the later Peshwas. What were its political consequences? (Hypothetical Question)