1.2.3 - Modern Indian History Notes 18

Elaborate Notes

Land Revenue Systems in British India

The establishment of British paramountcy in India necessitated the creation of a robust administrative and financial system. Land revenue, being the primary source of state income, became the central pillar of British economic policy. The East India Company (EIC) experimented with various systems to maximize revenue extraction, which had profound and lasting impacts on India’s agrarian structure, society, and economy.

The Farming System (Izaradari System), 1772

• Historical Context: Following the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the acquisition of Diwani rights (the right to collect revenue) for Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1765, the EIC engaged in what historians like Percival Spear term the “Plassey Plunder.” Under the Dual Government system (1765-1772), the Company held revenue rights while the Nawab retained administrative responsibility. This led to over-extraction by Company officials and their agents, with little regard for the welfare of the cultivators. This period of rapacious collection, coupled with a severe drought, culminated in the devastating Great Bengal Famine of 1770, which, according to official reports by W.W. Hunter in his Annals of Rural Bengal (1868), wiped out nearly one-third of the population (approximately 10 million people). The famine shattered the agrarian economy, leading to a sharp decline in revenue collections and a breakdown of law and order. To rectify this, the EIC ended the Dual Government and assumed direct administrative control.
• Introduction and Features: Warren Hastings, Governor of Bengal (1772-1774) and later Governor-General (1774-1785), introduced the Farming System in 1772 to stabilize and maximize revenue. This system was an extension of the traditional Indian Izaradari system, reflecting an early Orientalist approach of adapting existing Indian practices. The primary features were:
  1. Auction-Based System: The right to collect land revenue from a particular area (pargana) was auctioned to the highest bidder, known as the Izaradar or revenue farmer.
  2. Five-Yearly Settlement: Initially, the settlement was made for a period of five years to provide some stability, but it was later changed to an annual settlement.
  3. European Supervision: The collection was supervised by newly appointed European District Collectors, marking a significant step in the formalization of British administration at the district level.
• Impact and Failure: The system was a catastrophic failure. The revenue farmers, having no permanent stake in the land, were purely driven by profit maximization. They engaged in ruthless exploitation of the peasantry to extract as much revenue as possible within their tenure. The revenue demand was often set arbitrarily high, leading to widespread defaults, peasant flight, and the ruination of the rural economy. As noted by historian B.B. Misra in The Central Administration of the East India Company, 1773-1834, the system “sacrificed the peasant to the speculator.” The uncertainty and exploitative nature of the system failed to provide a stable income for the Company, prompting the search for a more permanent solution, which led to the arrival of Lord Cornwallis with a mandate for reform.

Permanent Settlement, 1793

• Ideological and Administrative Rationale: Lord Cornwallis (Governor-General, 1786-1793) introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. His approach was heavily influenced by the 18th-century English model of landed gentry and the French Physiocratic school of thought, which believed that agriculture was the primary source of all wealth. Cornwallis, himself an aristocrat, believed that creating a class of private landowners in India, akin to the English landlords, would lead to agrarian capitalism. This class, with secure property rights, would be incentivized to invest in land improvement, thereby increasing productivity and ensuring food security. The primary reasons for its introduction were:
  1. Financial Security: To create a stable and predictable source of revenue for the EIC, freeing it from the uncertainties of annual assessments.
  2. Administrative Convenience: It was easier for the administration to collect revenue from a small number of zamindars rather than millions of individual peasants. This reduced the administrative burden and costs.
  3. Political Alliance: The creation of a wealthy, landed class of zamindars who owed their position to the British was intended to forge a loyalist base for the colonial rule. As historian Ranajit Guha argued in A Rule of Property for Bengal (1963), it was a political-ideological act to create a class that would act as a buffer between the state and the peasantry.
• Key Features:
  1. Land Ownership: Zamindars, who were previously revenue collectors, were declared legal proprietors of the land. This was the first time private property rights in land, as understood in the West, were formally introduced in India. The land became a saleable, mortgageable, and inheritable commodity.
  2. Permanent Assessment: The land revenue demand was fixed in perpetuity. The state’s share was fixed at 10/11th of the rent collected by the zamindar, with the remaining 1/11th being his remuneration. This high assessment was based on the revenues of previous years.
  3. Sunset Clause: This was a stringent clause mandating that the zamindar had to pay the fixed revenue by the sunset of a specified date. Failure to do so would result in the auction of his estate (zamindari) to recover the arrears.
• Impact and Consequences:
  • On Zamindars: In the short term, the high revenue demand and the rigidity of the Sunset Clause led to the ruin of many old aristocratic zamindar families. Their lands were auctioned off and often purchased by a new class of urban-based moneylenders, merchants, or even the zamindars’ own officials (amlas). This led to the rise of absentee landlordism and a new class of intermediate tenure holders called Jotedars. In the long term, those who survived emerged as a staunchly loyal class, proving their value to the British during the Revolt of 1857.
  • On Ryots (Peasants): The system was disastrous for the actual cultivators. They were reduced to the status of tenants-at-will, stripped of their traditional occupancy rights. The zamindars, free to raise rents (as the state’s demand was fixed), subjected them to rack-renting, illegal cesses (abwabs), and eviction. The traditional patta (deed of agreement) system was ignored, leaving the ryots with no legal protection.
  • On the State: The British government secured a regular income and created a loyal class. However, by fixing the revenue permanently, the state forfeited any share in the future increase in agricultural income from rising prices or expanding cultivation, a decision that was later regretted.
• Regulation VII of 1799 and Tenancy Reforms: The dispossession and exploitation of peasants led to widespread unrest. To help zamindars control their tenants and ensure revenue collection, Cornwallis’s successor, Lord Wellesley, passed Regulation VII of 1799, which gave zamindars arbitrary powers to distrain tenants’ property and even imprison them without recourse to courts. This worsened the peasants’ plight. Decades of agrarian distress and revolts (like the Pabna Uprising, 1873-76) forced the government to intervene. The Bengal Rent Act of 1859 granted occupancy rights to tenants who had cultivated a piece of land continuously for 12 years. However, zamindars easily circumvented this by shifting tenants before the 12-year mark. Finally, the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 provided more robust protection, recognizing the rights of tenants and sub-tenants and preventing arbitrary enhancement of rent and eviction.

Ryotwari Settlement

• Context and Introduction: This system was introduced primarily in the Madras and Bombay Presidencies, as well as in Assam and Coorg. It was first experimented with by Captain Alexander Read in the Baramahal district of Madras in 1792. It was later developed and implemented on a large scale by Thomas Munro, who served as the Governor of Madras from 1820 to 1827.
• Ideological Rationale: The proponents of the Ryotwari system, particularly Munro, were influenced by two main ideas:
  1. Orientalism/Paternalism: Munro argued, based on his reading of Indian history, that the state had always been the supreme owner of land and collected revenue directly from the cultivator (ryot). He saw the zamindar as a recent and artificial creation. Therefore, he advocated for a system that was supposedly more aligned with Indian tradition.
  2. Utilitarianism: Thinkers like David Ricardo’s theory of rent influenced British administrators. They believed that intermediaries like zamindars siphoned off the “economic rent” (surplus from land), which rightfully belonged to the state. By dealing directly with the ryot, the state could maximize its revenue. This also resonated with the utilitarian idea of individual peasant proprietorship.
• Key Features:
  1. Direct Settlement with Ryot: The land revenue settlement was made directly with the actual cultivator (ryot), who was recognized as the proprietor of the land.
  2. Periodic Revision: Unlike the Permanent Settlement, the revenue demand was not fixed forever. It was subject to periodic revision, typically every 20 to 30 years, based on a survey of the land’s productivity.
  3. High Revenue Demand: The state’s share was often fixed at a very high rate, ranging from 45% to 55% of the gross produce in theory, but often much higher in practice due to flawed surveys.
• Impact and Consequences:
  • In theory, the system empowered the cultivator, but in practice, it was highly oppressive. The initial land surveys were often faulty and arbitrary, leading to over-assessment of revenue.
  • The high tax burden, collected inflexibly in cash, forced ryots to take loans from moneylenders, leading to widespread indebtedness. Many lost their lands to these moneylenders or to the government for non-payment of revenue.
  • The system led to the rise of new intermediaries, such as the Mirasidars in Madras. These were often landed elites from dominant castes who also served in the lower rungs of the revenue bureaucracy. They used their position to acquire the best lands sold in auctions, becoming powerful landlords and exploiting the smaller ryots.
  • The extreme oppression led to the appointment of the Madras Torture Commission in 1854. Its report in 1855 revealed the systematic use of torture by revenue officials to extract taxes, leading to subsequent reforms, including more scientific surveys and a reduction in the revenue demand.

Mahalwari Settlement

• Context and Introduction: This system was introduced in the Gangetic valley, the North-West Provinces, parts of Central India, and Punjab. The system was devised by Holt Mackenzie in 1822 and later refined under Lord William Bentinck by R.M. Bird and James Thomason in the 1830s. It was designed for regions where a form of collective or village community ownership of land was believed to exist.
• Key Features:
  1. Settlement with the Mahal: The unit of assessment was the village or estate, known as a mahal. The settlement was made collectively with the village community, which was jointly responsible for paying the land revenue.
  2. Role of the Lambardar: The revenue was collected from individual peasants by a village headman, or Lambardar, who then paid it to the state.
  3. Land Ownership: Land ownership rights were vested with the individual peasants. However, in some areas with a pre-existing zamindar or taluqdar class (like in Awadh), the settlement was made with them. Thus, it was a hybrid system, combining elements of both Ryotwari and Zamindari systems.
  4. Periodic Revision: Similar to the Ryotwari system, the revenue demand was subject to periodic revision.
• Impact and Consequences:
  • The state’s revenue demand was again excessively high, often based on faulty estimates of the mahal’s potential produce. This impoverished the village communities.
  • The rigidity of revenue collection forced peasants and headmen into the clutches of moneylenders. The introduction of property rights made land a commodity, which could be seized for debt, leading to large-scale land alienation.
  • In regions like Awadh, a “summary settlement” in 1856 dispossessed a large number of taluqdars (landlords), who lost their lands and social status. This widespread discontent among both talukdars and the peasantry was a major cause of their enthusiastic participation in the Revolt of 1857. The revolt saw a unique unity between dispossessed landlords and their former tenants against the British.

Prelims Pointers

• Farming System (1772): Introduced by Warren Hastings in Bengal. Based on the Izaradari system, where revenue collection rights were auctioned to the highest bidder.
• Dual Government (1765-1772): EIC had Diwani (revenue) rights, while the Nawab of Bengal had Nizamat (administrative) rights. Ended by Warren Hastings.
• Great Bengal Famine: Occurred in 1770, during the Dual Government period.
• Permanent Settlement (1793):
  1. Introduced by Lord Cornwallis.
  2. Implemented in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, parts of North Madras, and the Varanasi district. Covered about 19% of British India.
  3. Zamindars were recognized as proprietors of the land.
  4. Land revenue was fixed in perpetuity.
  5. Sunset Clause: A rule for the timely payment of revenue by zamindars.
  6. Jotedars: A class of rich peasants and intermediaries who gained prominence under this system.
• Ryotwari Settlement:
  1. First introduced by Alexander Read in Baramahal (1792).
  2. Mainly associated with Thomas Munro.
  3. Implemented in Madras, Bombay, Assam, and Coorg. Covered about 51% of British India.
  4. Direct settlement between the state and the cultivator (ryot).
  5. Revenue was periodically revised.
  6. Mirasidars: A class of landlord-bureaucrats in Madras who emerged as powerful intermediaries.
• Mahalwari Settlement:
  1. Devised by Holt Mackenzie (1822) and refined by R.M. Bird.
  2. Implemented in the North-West Provinces, Central India, and Punjab. Covered about 30% of British India.
  3. The unit of settlement was the village or estate (mahal).
  4. Revenue collected by a village headman (Lambardar).
• Key Legislation:
  • Regulation VII of 1799: Gave zamindars enhanced powers of distraint over tenants.
  • Bengal Rent Act, 1859: Granted occupancy rights to tenants with 12 years of continuous cultivation.
  • Bengal Tenancy Act, 1885: Provided greater protection to tenants.
• Madras Torture Commission: Appointed in 1854 to investigate the methods of revenue collection; submitted its report in 1855.

Mains Insights

Historiographical Debates and Analytical Perspectives

1. Intent vs. Impact:

   • Permanent Settlement: While Cornwallis envisioned creating a class of enterprising “improving landlords” like in Britain, the reality was starkly different. Historians like R.C. Dutt in his The Economic History of India (1901) criticized it as a “sad blunder” that sacrificed the peasantry. In contrast, scholars like Ranajit Guha argue it was a calculated political move to create a dependent loyal class, which succeeded. The debate is whether its failure was one of execution (high revenue demand) or a fundamental flaw in transplanting a European concept onto Indian soil.
   • Ryotwari System: Proponents like Munro saw it as a restoration of an ancient Indian system and a way to protect the peasant from intermediaries. However, Marxist historians like Irfan Habib argue that by introducing private property and a rigid cash-based revenue system, the British fundamentally destroyed the pre-colonial village community and exposed the peasant to the vagaries of the market and the moneylender, creating “de-peasantisation.”

2. Cause-Effect Relationships:

   • Commercialization of Agriculture: The high and inflexible cash demand of all three systems forced peasants to cultivate cash crops (indigo, cotton, opium) instead of food crops, leading to the forced commercialization of agriculture. This did not benefit the peasant but served the needs of the British industrial economy.
   • Rise of New Social Classes: The land revenue systems led to the decline of old aristocratic families and the rise of new classes: absentee landlords, moneylenders (mahajans), rich peasants (jotedars), and a vast class of landless agricultural laborers and tenants-at-will. This altered the rural social structure permanently.
   • Land Revenue and the Drain of Wealth: The primary motive of all systems was maximization of revenue. This revenue was a key component of the “Drain of Wealth,” a concept articulated by Dadabhai Naoroji. The surplus extracted from Indian agriculture was used to finance British administration, wars, and “home charges,” leading to the systematic de-capitalization of India.
   • Agrarian Uprisings and the Revolt of 1857: The widespread discontent caused by land alienation, indebtedness, and loss of status under the Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems was a direct cause of numerous peasant revolts and the mass participation of the peasantry and dispossessed taluqdars (especially from Awadh) in the 1857 Revolt.

3. Ideological Underpinnings of British Rule:

   • The evolution from the Farming System to Permanent Settlement, and then to Ryotwari/Mahalwari, reflects the shifting ideologies within the British administration.
   • Orientalism: Early systems (Hastings’s Farming System, Munro’s Ryotwari) claimed to be based on Indian traditions.
   • Whiggism/Capitalism: Cornwallis’s Permanent Settlement was a clear attempt to impose the British model of landlord-based agrarian capitalism.
   • Utilitarianism: The Ryotwari system was later championed by Utilitarians (like James Mill) who favoured individualism and direct state control to maximize “the greatest good for the greatest number” (which in practice meant maximizing state revenue).
   • As argued by Eric Stokes in The English Utilitarians and India (1959), these policies were not just about revenue but were part of a larger project of socially engineering Indian society along Western lines.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. With reference to Ryotwari Settlement, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2012)

   1. The rent was paid directly by the peasants to the Government.
   2. The Government gave Pattas to the Ryots.
   3. The lands were surveyed and assessed before being taxed. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None

   Answer: (c) 1, 2 and 3 Explanation: Under the Ryotwari system, the settlement was made directly with the ryot (peasant). The government recognized them as proprietors and gave them a title deed or patta. A key feature was the systematic survey and assessment of land to determine the revenue, although the initial surveys were often flawed.

2. Who among the following was/were associated with the introduction of Ryotwari Settlement in India during the British rule? (UPSC CSE 2017)

   1. Lord Cornwallis
   2. Alexander Read
   3. Thomas Munro Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (c) 2 and 3 only Explanation: Lord Cornwallis is associated with the Permanent Settlement (Zamindari System). Alexander Read and Thomas Munro are the key figures associated with the conceptualization and implementation of the Ryotwari Settlement.

3. The main reason for the British to create a separate class of landlords through the Permanent Settlement was to: (Hypothetical, based on common themes) (a) Promote agricultural innovation and investment. (b) Create a loyal class of supporters for British rule. (c) Simplify the process of revenue administration. (d) Preserve the traditional Indian social structure.

   Answer: (b) Create a loyal class of supporters for British rule. Explanation: While promoting investment and simplifying administration were stated goals, the primary political objective, as understood by most historians, was to create a politically reliable and influential class that would act as a bulwark for British rule in India.

4. Consider the following pairs: (Hypothetical, based on common themes)

   1. Mahalwari System : Holt Mackenzie
   2. Sunset Clause : Ryotwari Settlement
   3. Izaradari System : Warren Hastings Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (c) 1 and 3 only Explanation: The Mahalwari system was devised by Holt Mackenzie. The Izaradari (or Farming) system was introduced by Warren Hastings. The Sunset Clause was a distinctive feature of the Permanent Settlement, not the Ryotwari Settlement.

5. Under the Permanent Settlement, 1793, the Zamindars were required to issue pattas to the farmers which were not issued by many of them. The reason was: (UPSC CSE 2001 - older but relevant concept) (a) The Zamindars were trusted by the farmers. (b) There was no official check upon the Zamindars. (c) It was the responsibility of the British Government. (d) The farmers were not interested in getting pattas.

   Answer: (b) There was no official check upon the Zamindars. Explanation: The Permanent Settlement made the Zamindar the absolute owner of the land. While it required them to issue pattas specifying the rent, there was no effective administrative machinery or legal provision to enforce this. This lack of oversight allowed Zamindars to exploit tenants without providing them with the security of a patta.

Mains

1. Examine the major features of the Permanent Settlement and critically evaluate its impact on the rural society of Bengal. (Hypothetical, based on common themes)

   Answer: Introduction: The Permanent Settlement, introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, was a landmark land revenue policy that fundamentally restructured the agrarian relations in Eastern India. Influenced by British aristocratic ideals, it aimed to create financial stability for the East India Company and foster agrarian capitalism. However, its impact on rural society was complex and largely detrimental to the peasantry.

   Major Features:

   1. Proprietary Rights for Zamindars: Zamindars, previously revenue collectors, were declared legal proprietors of the land, making land a saleable and inheritable commodity.
   2. Perpetual Revenue Fixation: The state’s share of revenue was fixed in perpetuity at a very high rate (10/11th of the assessed rent).
   3. Sunset Clause: A stringent rule requiring payment of revenue by a specific date, failing which the zamindari would be auctioned.
   4. Role of the State: The state absolved itself of the responsibility of direct revenue collection and administration, dealing only with a limited number of zamindars.

   Impact on Rural Society:

   1. Ruin of Old Zamindars and Rise of New Landlords: The high revenue demand and rigid Sunset Clause led to the widespread auction of estates, ruining many traditional zamindar families. This facilitated the rise of a new class of absentee landlords, often urban merchants and moneylenders, who had little interest in agricultural improvement.
   2. Degradation of the Peasantry: The actual cultivators (ryots) were the worst sufferers. They were stripped of their traditional occupancy rights and reduced to tenants-at-will. The absence of a patta system and state protection led to rack-renting, illegal cesses (abwabs), and arbitrary evictions by zamindars.
   3. Stagnation of Agriculture: The system failed in its objective of promoting agricultural investment. Zamindars, with their income assured through rent extraction, found it easier to increase their surplus by squeezing tenants rather than investing in productivity. The high revenue demand left no surplus for investment, either with the zamindar or the cultivator.
   4. Social Stratification and Intermediaries: It led to sub-infeudation, with a long chain of rent-collecting intermediaries emerging between the state and the actual cultivator. The rise of rich peasants known as Jotedars further complicated the rural power structure, often challenging the authority of the zamindars at the local level.

   Conclusion: While the Permanent Settlement succeeded in its twin goals of securing a stable revenue for the British and creating a politically loyal class of landlords, it was a profound socio-economic failure. It led to the immiseration of the peasantry, stagnation in agriculture, and the creation of a parasitic landlord class, leaving a lasting legacy of rural poverty and conflict in the region.

2. “The Ryotwari settlement was in theory a more enlightened system, but in practice, it was often as oppressive as the Zamindari system.” Critically analyze this statement. (Hypothetical, based on common themes)

   Answer: Introduction: The Ryotwari Settlement, primarily associated with Thomas Munro and implemented in South and West India, was conceived as a progressive alternative to the Permanent Settlement. It theoretically empowered the individual cultivator by making them the direct proprietor of the land. However, the gap between its theoretical premise and practical application was vast, leading to oppression comparable to that under the Zamindari system.

   Arguments for the “Enlightened” Theory:

   1. Direct State-Peasant Relationship: It eliminated intermediaries like zamindars, allowing the peasant to be the master of their own land and pay revenue directly to the state.
   2. Recognition of Peasant Proprietorship: By granting pattas (title deeds), it provided legal ownership and security of tenure to the ryot, which was absent for peasants under the Permanent Settlement.
   3. Basis in Indian Tradition: Its proponents, like Munro, argued it was rooted in the pre-colonial Indian practice of direct revenue collection from cultivators, thus respecting indigenous institutions.

   Oppressive Nature in Practice:

   1. Exorbitant Revenue Demand: The core problem was the over-assessment of revenue. Based on flawed initial surveys, the state often demanded 50-60% of the gross produce. This left the peasant with barely enough for subsistence.
   2. Rigidity of Collection: Revenue was collected inflexibly in cash, irrespective of crop failure or price fluctuations. This forced peasants into the debt trap of moneylenders to meet the state’s demands.
   3. Land Alienation and Indebtedness: Widespread indebtedness led to the transfer of land from cultivating ryots to non-cultivating moneylenders, defeating the very purpose of the system. The ryot often became a tenant on the land he once owned.
   4. Administrative Tyranny: The reliance on a vast and often corrupt subordinate revenue bureaucracy led to immense harassment and exploitation of the peasantry. The findings of the Madras Torture Commission (1855) revealed the systematic use of torture by officials to extract revenue.

   Conclusion: The statement is largely accurate. While the Ryotwari system’s theoretical framework of peasant proprietorship was indeed more enlightened than the absentee landlordism of the Permanent Settlement, its practical implementation was marred by an insatiable revenue demand and administrative harshness. It replaced the tyranny of the zamindar with the tyranny of the state and the moneylender, ultimately leading to similar outcomes of peasant impoverishment, indebtedness, and land alienation.

3. How did the land revenue policies of the East India Company transform the agrarian structure of India? (UPSC CSE 2022 - adapted)

   Answer: Answer would follow a structure explaining the pre-British agrarian system (communal ownership, revenue as a share of produce), and then detailing how the Permanent, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems introduced concepts like private property, fixed cash revenue, and land as a commodity, leading to land alienation, indebtedness, rise of new classes, and forced commercialization, thereby transforming the structure.

4. Assess the impact of the new land revenue settlements and revenue rates on the peasant class during the British period. (UPSC CSE 2020 - adapted)

   Answer: This answer would focus specifically on the peasantry. It would detail how features across all three systems—high revenue rates, cash payments, inflexibility, and lack of state support—led to a uniform pattern of peasant indebtedness, loss of land, reduction to tenancy, and participation in agrarian revolts.

5. Explain how the commercialization of agriculture under British rule affected the Indian rural economy. (Hypothetical, based on common themes)

   Answer: This answer would link the revenue systems as a primary driver of commercialization. It would explain that the need to pay high revenue in cash forced peasants to grow cash crops (indigo, cotton, opium) for the market. The impact would be analyzed: while it integrated India into the world economy, it did so as a subordinate supplier of raw materials. It exposed peasants to price volatility, did not lead to capital investment, and often caused famines by shifting land away from food grain cultivation.