GS Notes

1.2.3 - Modern Indian History Notes 21

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Elaborate Notes

Judiciary

  • Pre-Colonial Justice System and British Perceptions: Before the East India Company’s (EIC) intervention, the Indian justice system was largely decentralized and based on religious scriptures and local customs. In Hindu communities, justice was often dispensed by caste panchayats or local assemblies, focusing on reconciliation and social harmony rather than punitive measures. Islamic law (Sharia), administered by Qazis and Muftis, was more codified but its application could vary. The British, influenced by their own evolving legal traditions, viewed this system as arbitrary. They argued that there was an “absence of rule of law,” a concept they defined as equality before the law and its uniform application. They contended that interpretations of Dharmashastras by Pandits and Sharia by Maulvis were inconsistent and often influenced by the social standing of the litigants, thereby lacking predictability and fairness. Scholar J. Duncan M. Derrett, in his works like Religion, Law and the State in India (1968), has extensively analyzed the complexities of traditional Hindu law and its encounter with the British legal system.

  • Dual Government in Bengal (1765-1772): Following the Battle of Buxar (1764), Robert Clive secured the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa for the EIC from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. The Nizamat (criminal justice and police functions) formally remained with the Nawab of Bengal. To manage this, a system of ‘Dual Government’ was established. The EIC appointed two Naib Diwans (Deputy Governors), Mohammad Reza Khan for Bengal and Raja Shitab Rai for Bihar, to administer these functions on behalf of both the Company and the Nawab. This arrangement reflected an early Orientalist ideology, aiming to rule through existing Indian institutions to minimize disruption and resistance. As historian Thomas R. Metcalf argues in Ideologies of the Raj (1995), this was a pragmatic choice to govern a vast territory without the requisite manpower or local knowledge.

  • Assumption of Direct Rule (1772): Warren Hastings ended the Dual Government in 1772 and brought Bengal under the EIC’s direct administration. The motivations were multifaceted:

    1. Efficiency and Revenue: The devastating Bengal Famine of 1770, which wiped out a significant portion of the population, led to a catastrophic decline in revenue collection. The British believed a more direct, efficient, and centralized administration would restore order and maximize revenue.
    2. Ideological Justification: The nascent ideology of the “White Man’s Burden” or a “civilizing mission” began to take shape. The British presented their intervention as a move to provide a just and fair administration, free from the perceived corruption and nepotism of Indian officials, and to establish the principle of ‘rule of law’ where feudal privileges were eliminated.
    3. Consolidation of Sovereignty: By dismantling the existing administrative structure and placing Europeans in key positions, the EIC sought to establish its de facto sovereignty in the minds of the Indian populace and local elites, moving from being mere traders to undisputed rulers.

  • Warren Hastings’ Judicial Reforms (1772):

    • Hastings established a new judicial structure. Each district was to have two courts: a Diwani Adalat (civil court) and a Faujdari/Nizamat Adalat (criminal court).
    • The Diwani Adalat was presided over by the European District Collector, who was assisted by Indian Pandits and Maulvis to interpret traditional laws.
    • The Faujdari Adalat was formally headed by Indian officials like Qazis and Muftis, but they were placed under the strict supervision of the European Collector. This was a cautious step, as criminal justice was a sensitive domain.
    • Two appellate courts were established in Calcutta: the Sadar Diwani Adalat (for civil cases) and the Sadar Nizamat Adalat (for criminal cases), presided over by the Governor-General and members of his council.

  • Conflict with the Supreme Court and Subsequent Reforms:

    • The Regulating Act of 1773 established a Supreme Court at Calcutta in 1774, with judges appointed by the British Crown. Its jurisdiction was poorly defined, leading to a severe conflict with the Governor-General’s courts. The Supreme Court claimed jurisdiction over all inhabitants of Calcutta and Company servants, leading to clashes over legal authority. The most famous instance was the trial and execution of Raja Nand Kumar (1775) for forgery, a case widely seen as a judicial murder orchestrated by Hastings’s rival Philip Francis using the Supreme Court, whose jurisdiction over an Indian for a crime committed before its establishment was highly contested.
    • The Bengal Judicature Act of 1781 (or Act of Settlement) was passed to remedy this confusion. It limited the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction to cases within Calcutta and those involving British-born subjects. It explicitly exempted the official actions of the Governor-General and EIC servants from its purview.
    • To ensure uniformity, Hastings commissioned a digest of Hindu laws, which was translated by N.B. Halhed and published as A Code of Gentoo Laws (1776). A similar effort for Islamic law followed. These were early steps towards the codification that would define the British legal legacy.

Cornwallis Code (1793)

  • Lord Cornwallis, a firm believer in the separation of powers and deeply suspicious of Indian officials, introduced a comprehensive code in 1793.
    • Separation of Powers: The most significant reform was the complete separation of revenue and judicial functions. The Collector, previously the district’s chief revenue officer and judge, was now responsible only for revenue collection. The judicial duties were transferred to a newly created post of District Judge. This was done to prevent abuse of power by revenue officials and to protect the property rights of Zamindars under the Permanent Settlement.
    • Hierarchy of Courts: He established a systematic hierarchy: Munsiff’s Courts (lowest level, headed by Indians), Registrar’s Courts, District Courts (headed by European judges), four Provincial Courts of Appeal (at Calcutta, Dacca, Murshidabad, and Patna), and the Sadar Diwani/Nizamat Adalats at the apex.
    • Europeanization of Judiciary: Cornwallis systematically excluded Indians from all senior positions in the judiciary, believing them to be inherently corrupt. As historian B.B. Misra notes in The Central Administration of the East India Company, 1773-1834, this policy stemmed from a combination of racial prejudice and a desire to consolidate British control. The office of Naib/Nazim was abolished.
    • Professionalization of Law: The code recognized the legal profession by allowing the appointment of ‘Vakils’ or lawyers to plead cases, leading to the emergence of a new, professional legal class in India.

The Judicial System in Ryotwari Areas

  • The complex and expensive Cornwallis system was ill-suited for the Ryotwari areas of Madras and Bombay presidencies. Here, land ownership was vested in millions of individual peasants (ryots), leading to a massive number of small-scale land and revenue disputes.
  • Advocated by administrators like Sir Thomas Munro in Madras and Mountstuart Elphinstone in Bombay, a different system was adopted. They prioritized accessibility and affordability over procedural complexity.
  • Reversal of Separation of Powers: The principle of separation of powers was abandoned. The District Collector was reinvested with magisterial and judicial powers, allowing him and his subordinates to resolve disputes quickly at the local level.
  • Indianization at Lower Levels: This system relied heavily on traditional village institutions like panchayats and Indian officials like Munsiffs and Amins, leading to greater Indianization of the lower rungs of the judiciary, in stark contrast to the Cornwallis system in Bengal.

Codification of Laws

  • The utilitarian philosophy, which emphasized clear, rational, and uniform laws, gained influence in the 1830s. The Charter Act of 1833 mandated the codification of Indian laws and added a Law Member to the Governor-General’s Council.
  • Thomas Babington Macaulay was the first Law Member and chaired the First Law Commission (1834). Its work laid the foundation for a uniform legal code applicable to all British India.
  • This process culminated in the enactment of the Code of Civil Procedure (1859), the Indian Penal Code (1860), and the Code of Criminal Procedure (1861). These codes replaced a multitude of traditional and religious laws, establishing a secular and uniform legal framework.
  • The Indian High Courts Act of 1861 led to the establishment of High Courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1862 by amalgamating the erstwhile Supreme Courts and the Sadar Adalats.

Police

  • Early Systems: Initially, the EIC continued the Mughal system, where Zamindars held local police powers in rural areas. Warren Hastings attempted to regularize this by making Zamindars accountable to the District Magistrate, but this failed due to inadequate supervision, leading to atrocities by Zamindars’ agents.

  • Cornwallis’s Daroga System (1792):

    • Cornwallis established a regular police force, stripping Zamindars of their police functions.
    • He divided districts into ‘thanas’ (police stations), each approximately 20-30 square miles in area, headed by an Indian officer called a Daroga. The Daroga was placed under the control of the District Magistrate.
    • The system was largely a failure. The Darogas were poorly paid and wielded immense power, making them susceptible to corruption. A notorious Daroga-Zamindar nexus emerged, where the police became instruments of coercion and oppression in the hands of the local landed elite.

  • Systems in Other Presidencies: The Daroga system was extended to Madras in 1802 but was soon dismantled due to its failures. Following the Munro model, police powers were restored to village headmen and local revenue officials under the Collector’s supervision.

  • Indian Police Act, 1861:

    • The Revolt of 1857 was a major catalyst for police reform. The British felt the need for a disciplined, loyal, and centrally controlled coercive force.
    • The Act established the modern police system in India, creating a well-defined hierarchy. It instituted a provincial police force with an Inspector-General as the head, a Deputy Inspector-General at the range level, and a Superintendent of Police (SP) at the district level.
    • A key feature was the strategic exclusion of Indians from senior officer ranks. All key positions from the SP upwards were reserved for Europeans. The Police Commission of 1902 (Fraser Commission) under Lord Curzon, while recommending improvements, upheld this racial hierarchy, ensuring that the highest rank an Indian could aspire to was just below where the European ranks began.

Civil Services

  • Cornwallis, the “Father of Civil Services”: Lord Cornwallis laid the foundation for a professional bureaucracy.

    • He curbed corruption by increasing the salaries of EIC officials, prohibiting private trade and the acceptance of ‘presents’ (bribes), and reducing patronage in favour of merit-based promotions.
    • He bifurcated the administration into the Covenanted Civil Service (CCS), consisting of senior posts exclusively reserved for Britons, and the Uncovenanted Civil Service, which comprised lower-level positions open to Indians.

  • Opening the Services to Indians:

    • The Charter Act of 1833 theoretically declared that Indians would not be barred from holding any office under the Company. However, in practice, no Indian was appointed to the covenanted service.
    • The Charter Act of 1853 was a landmark. It ended the EIC Directors’ system of patronage and introduced an open competitive examination for recruitment to the Covenanted Civil Service, making it accessible to Indians in theory.
    • The first competitive exam was held in 1855. However, significant barriers remained for Indian aspirants: the exam was held only in London, the syllabus was heavily biased towards a classical European education, and the maximum age for entry was kept very low (reduced to 19 by Lord Lytton in 1878). Satyendranath Tagore became the first Indian to clear the examination in 1863.

  • Post-1857 Developments and Indianization:

    • After 1857, while the open exam continued, the British became more suspicious of admitting Indians to positions of power.
    • Lytton’s Statutory Civil Service (1878-79): As a response to growing demands for Indianization, Lytton introduced this scheme. It allowed for the nomination of a few Indians from aristocratic and high-status families to one-sixth of the covenanted posts. It was a discriminatory system intended to co-opt loyal elites and was widely unpopular.
    • Aitchison Commission (1886): This commission recommended abolishing the Statutory Civil Service and reorganizing the services into three tiers: the Imperial Civil Service (recruited in Britain), the Provincial Civil Service (recruited in India), and the Subordinate Civil Service.
    • Government of India Act, 1919: Following sustained pressure from the Indian nationalist movement, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms recommended holding simultaneous civil service examinations in both London and India. The first such exam was held in Allahabad in 1922. The Lee Commission (1924) further endorsed this and proposed that 50% of entrants should be Indians within 15 years.

Prelims Pointers

  • Dual Government (Bengal): Introduced by Robert Clive (1765-1772). Diwani (revenue) was with EIC, Nizamat (criminal justice) was with the Nawab, but administered by EIC’s deputies.
  • Warren Hastings: Ended Dual Government in 1772. Established Diwani Adalats and Faujdari Adalats in each district.
  • Regulating Act, 1773: Led to the establishment of the Supreme Court at Calcutta in 1774.
  • Bengal Judicature Act, 1781: Also called the Act of Settlement, it curtailed the powers of the Supreme Court and defined its jurisdiction.
  • A Code of Gentoo Laws (1776): A digest of Hindu laws compiled under Warren Hastings and translated by N.B. Halhed.
  • Cornwallis Code (1793):
    1. Based on the principle of separation of powers (separated revenue from judiciary).
    2. Collector’s judicial powers were taken away and given to the District Judge.
    3. Europeanized the higher echelons of the administration and judiciary.
    4. Introduced the Daroga system in police administration.
  • Ryotwari Area Judiciary: Advocated by Thomas Munro (Madras) and M. Elphinstone (Bombay). Rejected separation of powers; the Collector held both revenue and judicial powers.
  • Charter Act, 1833: Provided for the appointment of a Law Member to the Governor-General’s Council. Led to the establishment of the First Law Commission under T.B. Macaulay.
  • Codified Laws: Indian Penal Code (1860), Code of Civil Procedure (1859), Code of Criminal Procedure (1861).
  • Indian High Courts Act, 1861: Established High Courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1862.
  • Covenanted Civil Service (CCS): Senior administrative posts reserved for Europeans.
  • Charter Act, 1853: Introduced open competitive examination for the Covenanted Civil Service.
  • Satyendranath Tagore: First Indian to be selected for the Indian Civil Service (1863).
  • Statutory Civil Service (1878): Introduced by Lord Lytton for nominating Indians of high standing.
  • Aitchison Commission (1886): Recommended a three-tier classification of services: Imperial, Provincial, and Subordinate.
  • Government of India Act, 1919: Provided for simultaneous civil service examinations in London and India.
  • First Simultaneous Exam in India: Held in 1922.

Mains Insights

Cause-Effect Relationships and Analytical Perspectives:

  1. From Orientalism to Anglicism: The initial judicial policy under Hastings (Dual Govt, using Pandits/Maulvis) reflected an ‘Orientalist’ respect for Indian institutions. However, this gave way to an ‘Anglicist’ approach under Cornwallis and later Macaulay, who believed in the superiority of British institutions and laws. This shift was driven by the perceived corruption and inefficiency of the Indian system, the influence of Utilitarian philosophy, and the need to create a legal framework that protected British commercial and political interests (e.g., property rights under Permanent Settlement).

  2. Rule of Law: A Double-Edged Sword:

    • Positive Aspect: The British introduced the concept of ‘rule of law’, meaning a government of laws and not of men, and equality before the law. This was a radical departure from the pre-modern system where justice was often influenced by caste and status. It created a consciousness of legal rights among Indians.
    • Negative Aspect (Historiographical Debate): Nationalist historians like Bipan Chandra argue that ‘equality before law’ was a myth. Europeans often received preferential treatment in courts (e.g., the Ilbert Bill controversy). Justice became expensive, complex, and time-consuming, favoring the rich who could afford lawyers and navigate the intricate procedures, while alienating the poor. The new laws often served colonial interests, such as those designed to suppress nationalist activities.

  3. Administrative Reforms and Consolidation of Power:

    • The Cornwallis Code, by separating powers, aimed to create an image of impartial justice, thereby legitimizing British rule. However, by excluding Indians from senior posts, it also ensured that real power remained firmly in British hands.
    • The Police Act of 1861, enacted after the 1857 Revolt, was a direct consequence of the need for a more reliable instrument of state control. The police force was designed not just to maintain law and order but also to gather intelligence and suppress dissent against the colonial state.

  4. Exclusion from Civil Services and the Rise of Nationalism:

    • The systematic policy of excluding Indians from higher civil and police services, despite proclamations of fairness (Charter Act 1833), became a major grievance for the educated Indian middle class.
    • This ‘racial discrimination’ was a key factor in the birth of early nationalism. The demand for the Indianization of services and simultaneous examinations was a central plank of early political organizations like the Indian National Congress. For early nationalists, this was not just a demand for jobs but a fight for racial equality and self-governance.

  5. Unintended Consequences:

    • The introduction of a uniform legal system and a professional lawyer class inadvertently helped in national integration. Lawyers trained in British law, such as M.K. Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Sardar Patel, used their legal acumen to challenge the colonial state and later became leaders of the freedom struggle.
    • The modern bureaucratic structure (the ‘steel frame’) created by the British for their own imperial purposes was inherited by independent India and continues to be the backbone of its administration, for better or worse.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims Questions

  1. With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC Prelims 2020)

    1. Aurang - In-charge of treasury of the State
    2. Banian - Indian agent of the East India Company
    3. Mirasidar - Designated revenue payer to the State Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only
    • Explanation: A Banian was an Indian agent or broker employed by EIC officials for their private trade. A Mirasidar was a landholder with proprietary rights in parts of South India, recognized as the designated revenue payer under the Ryotwari system. An Aurang was a Persian term for a warehouse where goods were collected before being exported, not a treasury in-charge.

  2. Who among the following was associated as Secretary with Hindu Female School which later came to be known as Bethune Female School? (UPSC Prelims 2021) (a) Annie Besant (b) Debendranath Tagore (c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (d) Sarojini Naidu Answer: (c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

    • Explanation: While not directly on administration, this question reflects the broader theme of colonial-era reforms and personalities. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was a key figure in social and educational reforms and was closely associated with John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune in establishing the school in 1849.

  3. The Charter Act of 1813… (UPSC Prelims 2019 - Question framed for relevance)

    1. It ended the trade monopoly of the East India Company in India except for trade in tea and trade with China.
    2. It asserted the sovereignty of the British Crown over the Company’s territories in India.
    3. The revenues of India were now controlled by the British Parliament. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only
    • Explanation: This question on the Charter Acts is representative of how UPSC tests legislative developments. The Charter Act of 1813 ended the EIC’s trade monopoly except for tea and opium trade with China, and it explicitly asserted the Crown’s sovereignty. The revenues were not controlled by the Parliament until much later.

  4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC Prelims 2021)

    1. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 recommended granting voting rights to all women above the age of 21.
    2. The Government of India Act of 1935 gave women reserved seats in legislature. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (b) 2 only
    • Explanation: Relevant to administrative reforms, the GoI Act 1919 (Mont-Ford Reforms) left the decision to grant female suffrage to the provincial legislatures; it did not grant universal rights. The GoI Act of 1935 did provide for reserved seats for women, expanding their participation.

  5. What was the main reason for the split in the Indian National Congress at Surat in 1907? (UPSC Prelims 2016) (a) Introduction of communalism into Indian politics by Lord Minto. (b) Extremists’ lack of faith in the capacity of the moderates to negotiate with the British Government. (c) Foundation of Muslim League. (d) Aurobindo Ghosh’s inability to be elected as the President of the Indian National Congress. Answer: (b) Extremists’ lack of faith in the capacity of the moderates to negotiate with the British Government.

    • Explanation: While slightly off-topic, the conflict between Moderates and Extremists was partly fueled by differing perceptions of British administrative and constitutional reforms. Moderates believed in petitioning for greater Indianization of services and legislative councils, a strategy the Extremists saw as “political mendicancy.”

Mains Questions

  1. “The Cornwallis Code, while aiming to establish a ‘rule of law’, ended up creating a system that was often inaccessible and served to strengthen the colonial state.” Critically analyze. (Hypothetical, based on UPSC pattern)

    • Answer Framework:
      • Introduction: Briefly introduce the Cornwallis Code of 1793 as a foundational pillar of British administration, based on separation of powers, a hierarchical judiciary, and the principle of ‘rule of law’.
      • Arguments for ‘Rule of Law’:
        • Ended the arbitrary power of revenue collectors by separating executive and judicial functions.
        • Established a clear hierarchy of courts with defined jurisdictions, bringing predictability.
        • Abolished many feudal and customary privileges, theoretically establishing equality before the law.
      • Arguments for Inaccessibility and Colonial Strengthening:
        • Inaccessibility: The judicial process became extremely complex, procedure-ridden, and expensive. This favoured the wealthy and disadvantaged the poor ryot. Courts were often located in distant district headquarters.
        • Exclusion of Indians: The systematic Europeanization of the higher judiciary created a racial divide and made the system culturally alien to most Indians.
        • Strengthening Colonial State: The primary goal was to protect British property and commercial interests, especially the rights of Zamindars under the Permanent Settlement, to ensure a stable revenue flow. The new legal system overrode traditional rights and customs, strengthening the state’s control over society.
      • Conclusion: Conclude that while the Cornwallis Code did introduce modern concepts of jurisprudence, its practical application was fraught with problems. It was an instrument designed more for the stability and efficiency of the colonial regime than for delivering accessible justice to the Indian masses, thus serving as a classic example of a reform with dual and often contradictory objectives.

  2. Discuss the evolution of the Civil Services in British India. How did the persistent demand for its Indianization contribute to the rise of nationalism? (Similar to past questions on nationalism)

    • Answer Framework:
      • Introduction: Explain that the Civil Service, known as the ‘steel frame’, was the primary instrument of British rule in India, and its evolution reflects the changing nature of the empire and Indian response.
      • Evolution of Civil Services:
        • Phase 1 (Pre-1853): EIC’s patronage system, corruption. Cornwallis’s reforms (higher salary, ban on private trade), creation of Covenanted (European) and Uncovenanted (Indian) services.
        • Phase 2 (1853-1886): Charter Act of 1853 introduces open competition. Mention barriers for Indians (London exam, age limit, syllabus). Satyendranath Tagore as the first successful Indian. Lytton’s discriminatory Statutory Civil Service.
        • Phase 3 (Post-1886): Aitchison Commission’s recommendations (Imperial, Provincial, Subordinate). Growing nationalist pressure. GoI Act 1919 sanctions simultaneous exams. First exam in India in 1922. Lee Commission’s recommendations for faster Indianization.
      • Contribution to Nationalism:
        • Grievance of Educated Middle Class: The deliberate exclusion from positions of power and responsibility, despite acquiring the necessary education, created a sense of racial discrimination and injustice.
        • Platform for Early Nationalists: The demand for simultaneous exams and raising the age limit became a core agenda for early organizations like the East India Association and the Indian National Congress. It was a concrete, unifying demand.
        • Symbol of Self-Rule: For nationalists like Dadabhai Naoroji and Surendranath Banerjea, the fight for civil service reform was not just about jobs; it was a demand for equality, participation in governance, and a stepping stone towards self-rule.
      • Conclusion: The evolution of civil services was a contested process. The British slowly conceded ground under relentless pressure. This very struggle became a training ground for early nationalist leaders and a powerful catalyst that transformed a demand for administrative reform into a full-fledged movement for political freedom.

  3. To what extent did the Indian Police Act of 1861 create a modern police force? Examine its role as an instrument of colonial control. (Analytical question)

    • Answer Framework:
      • Introduction: Briefly state that the Indian Police Act of 1861, passed in the aftermath of the 1857 Revolt, was a pivotal moment that established the basic structure of policing in India which largely continues today.
      • Features of a ‘Modern’ Police Force:
        • Hierarchical Structure: Created a uniform, provincial-level force with a clear chain of command (IG, DIG, SP, etc.), replacing the fragmented, localized systems.
        • Bureaucratic Organisation: It was a salaried, state-controlled agency, distinct from the military, with defined roles and responsibilities.
        • Statutory Basis: The force was established under a law, making it a formal institution of the state.
      • Role as an Instrument of Colonial Control:
        • Post-1857 Context: The primary objective was to create a disciplined force loyal to the British state to prevent future uprisings.
        • Racial Hierarchy: The complete exclusion of Indians from officer ranks ensured that the command structure remained firmly in British hands. This made the police an army of occupation in essence.
        • Suppression of Dissent: The police were extensively used not just for crime prevention but for surveillance of nationalist leaders, suppression of political protests, and enforcement of repressive laws (e.g., Vernacular Press Act).
        • Alienation from Public: The police were often seen by the public not as protectors but as agents of an oppressive foreign power, a legacy that has complex repercussions even today.
      • Conclusion: Conclude that while the 1861 Act did introduce modern organizational principles to policing, its spirit and function were fundamentally colonial. It was designed primarily as a coercive arm of the state to maintain imperial control, and this legacy of being a ‘ruler’s police’ rather than a ‘people’s police’ has been a persistent challenge in post-independence India.

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