1.2.3 - Modern Indian History Notes 24

Elaborate Notes

Tribal Grievances and Uprisings

The intrusion of the colonial state and market forces into tribal territories precipitated widespread resistance. The core grievances stemmed from the disruption of their traditional autonomy and symbiotic relationship with the forest ecosystem.

• Disruption of Agrarian Order: The British fundamentally altered the tribal way of life, which was deeply intertwined with land and forest.

  • Imposition of British Systems: The introduction of the Permanent Settlement (1793), Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems in tribal areas was catastrophic. As historian Sumit Sarkar notes in “Modern India, 1885-1947” (1983), these systems introduced the concept of private property in land, which was alien to the tribal tradition of communal ownership (known as the Khuntkatti system among the Mundas).
  • Influx of Outsiders (Dikus): The new land revenue systems facilitated the entry of non-tribal outsiders—zamindars, moneylenders (mahajans), merchants, and revenue farmers. These ‘dikus’ (a term used by the Santhals for outsiders) exploited the tribals through usurious lending, leading to debt bondage and eventual land alienation.
  • British Administration: The establishment of a new administrative and judicial apparatus, staffed by officials who were often corrupt and ignorant of tribal customs, undermined the authority of traditional tribal chiefs and councils.

• Exploitation of Forest Resources: The British viewed forests primarily as a commercial resource.

  • Forest Laws: The Government Forest Act of 1865 and the more comprehensive Indian Forest Act of 1878 categorised forests into ‘Reserved’, ‘Protected’, and ‘Village’ forests. This severely restricted tribal access to forest produce, grazing lands, and hunting grounds, which were essential for their survival. Historian Ramachandra Guha, in “The Unquiet Woods” (1989), details how this “scientific forestry” was an ecological and social disaster for forest-dwelling communities.
  • Commercial Interests: The construction of railways from the 1850s onwards created an insatiable demand for timber (for sleepers). This led to large-scale, state-sponsored deforestation and the displacement of tribal communities. Mining operations further exacerbated this process.
  • Ban on Traditional Practices: The British banned shifting cultivation (Jhum or Podu), viewing it as primitive and destructive. The real motive, however, was to settle tribal populations to ensure a stable source of land revenue and a supply of agricultural labour.

• Cultural and Religious Interference:

  • Christian Missionaries: Following the Charter Act of 1813, which allowed Christian missionaries to operate in India, there was an increase in missionary activity in tribal areas. While some missionaries did commendable work in education and health, their proselytizing efforts were often seen as an assault on indigenous tribal religions and cultural identity. This created social cleavages within tribal communities.

• Forced Labour (Begar): Tribals were often compelled to perform unpaid forced labour for public works projects like road and railway construction, as well as for government officials and zamindars.

Civil and Peasant Uprisings Pre-1857

These uprisings were often led by deposed local rulers, chieftains, or religious figures, who mobilized the peasantry against the disruptive policies of the East India Company.

• Revolts by Deposed Rulers:

  • Raja Chait Singh of Banaras (1778-81): When Warren Hastings made exorbitant demands for revenue, Chait Singh’s refusal led to his deposition, sparking a popular revolt in his support.
  • Wazir Ali Khan of Awadh (1799): The deposed Nawab, with popular backing, revolted against the British who had placed him on the throne and then removed him.
  • Poligar Rebellions (1799-1805): The Poligars (feudal lords) of the Madras Presidency, notably Kattabomman Nayak, resisted the British attempt to strip them of their military and administrative authority and impose high revenue demands under the Ryotwari system.
  • Dewan Velu Thampi of Travancore (1809): The Prime Minister of Travancore led a massive rebellion against the British Resident’s interference in state affairs following a subsidiary alliance treaty, issuing the famous Kundara Proclamation to call for armed resistance.

• Revolts with Peasant Initiative and Religious Overtones:

  • Sanyasi and Fakir Rebellion (c. 1763-1800): This prolonged series of raids and uprisings in Bengal and Bihar involved displaced peasants, disbanded soldiers, and wandering Hindu Sanyasis and Muslim Fakirs. As described in Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s novel “Anandamath” (1882), their grievances included high land revenue, restrictions on pilgrimage, and the economic devastation following the Bengal Famine of 1770.
  • Pagal Panthis Revolt (1825-35): A semi-religious sect founded by Karam Shah in East Bengal, which under his son Tipu Shah, organised peasants against the oppressive practices of zamindars, demanding tenants’ rights and fair rents.
  • Faraizi Revolt (1838-57): Initiated by Haji Shariatullah in East Bengal, this movement sought to purify Islam but also took up the cause of peasants against zamindars and British indigo planters. Under his son Dudu Mian, it became a well-organised movement, declaring that land belonged to God and no one had the right to levy tax on it.
  • Moplah Uprisings (1836-1854): In the Malabar region, the Moplah (Muslim) tenants rose up against the Hindu landlords (Jenmis) who were supported by the British. The grievances were primarily agrarian—rack-renting, eviction, and renewal fees—but the conflict acquired a communal colour due to the distinct religious identities of the tenants and landlords. A.R. Desai in “Social Background of Indian Nationalism” (1948) highlights this blend of class and religious conflict.

Major Tribal Uprisings Pre-1857

These were some of the most violent and widespread forms of resistance, directly challenging colonial authority.

• Kol Uprising (1831-32): The Kols of Chotanagpur (present-day Jharkhand) revolted against the transfer of their lands to outsiders like Sikh and Muslim farmers. The rebellion was a direct response to the breakdown of their traditional socio-political system under British rule. The British had to deploy a large military force to suppress the uprising.
• Khasi Uprising (1829-33): Led by Tirath Singh, the Khasi chiefs in the hills between Garo and Jaintia Hills resisted the British construction of a road linking the Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet. The project involved a large influx of outsiders and was perceived as an encroachment on their sovereignty.
• Santhal Rebellion (Hul) (1855-56): This was one of the most formidable pre-1857 revolts. The Santhals, who had been settled by the British in the Damin-i-Koh area (Rajmahal Hills, Jharkhand), rose up under the leadership of two brothers, Sido and Kanhu Murmu. Their grievances were against the trifecta of oppression: the zamindars, the police, and the courts, all working in tandem with the moneylenders. They proclaimed the end of Company rule and the establishment of their own government. The rebellion was brutally crushed, with an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 Santhals killed.

Character of Pre-1857 Revolts

Historians have debated the nature and significance of these early uprisings.

• Lack of Modern Nationalism: These movements were localized, lacked inter-regional coordination, and did not possess a modern, all-India nationalist consciousness. Their objective was often restorative—to re-establish a previous, more just social and political order, rather than to create a modern democratic nation-state.
• ‘Prehistory of Modern Nationalism’: Despite their limitations, nationalist historians like Bipan Chandra argue they form the ‘prehistory’ of the freedom struggle. They were overtly political and anti-colonial, targeting the symbols and agents of British rule.
• Subaltern Consciousness: Subaltern historians, most notably Ranajit Guha in “Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India” (1983), argue against viewing these revolts merely as “pre-political.” Guha asserts that these movements had their own autonomous political consciousness, ideology, and methods of mobilization, which were often expressed through the idiom of religion and community.
• Organizational Aspects:
  • Ideology: The core ideology was the restoration of a ‘moral economy’ and traditional order disrupted by colonialism.
  • Organization: Religious sects (Faraizis, Pagal Panthis) provided a ready-made organizational structure and leadership.
  • Programme: Many revolts were not spontaneous but involved planning. The Santhals, for instance, held large assemblies and issued an ultimatum to the authorities before the ‘Hul’ began.
  • Targeting Oppressors: The rebels displayed a clear understanding of their enemies. They selectively attacked the property of moneylenders (burning account books), zamindars’ offices, police stations, and railway construction sites—the instruments of their oppression.

Post-1857 Uprisings

Tribal and peasant movements continued after 1857, sometimes adopting new methods and objectives.

• Munda Uprising (Ulgulan) (1899-1900): Led by the charismatic Birsa Munda in the Chotanagpur region, this was a significant millenarian movement.
  • Grievances: The key issues were the destruction of the traditional Khuntkatti (joint ownership) land system and the activities of Christian missionaries.
  • Methodology: Birsa Munda claimed to be a divine messenger and fused religious and political ideas to mobilize the Mundas. He called for an end to the kingdom of the ‘races’ (referring to the British) and established the Munda Raj. The revolt used religious narrative (Kaliyuga vs. Satyuga) and political symbolism (attacking churches and police stations on Christmas Eve, 1899). The ‘Ulgulan’ or Great Tumult was crushed, and Birsa Munda died in prison in 1900.
• Rampa Rebellion (1879 and 1922-24):
  • 1879 Revolt: Located in the Rampa region of Andhra Pradesh, this revolt was against restrictive forest laws, the toddy tax, and exploitation by moneylenders. It was led by local chiefs (Muttadars).
  • 1922-24 Revolt: The tradition of revolt was revived by Alluri Sitarama Raju, an outsider who was deeply influenced by the Non-Cooperation Movement but believed that violence was necessary to overthrow the British. He led a guerilla war against the British, drawing inspiration from local grievances against forest laws. He was captured and executed in 1924, becoming a folk hero.

Peasant Movements and Early Indian Nationalism (Post-1857)

Post-1857 peasant movements displayed new characteristics, reflecting a changing political landscape.

• New Features: Peasants demonstrated a greater awareness of colonial laws and institutions, often using legal channels and petitions. The educated middle class began to play a significant role as leaders and advocates.
• Indigo Revolt (1859-60):
  • Background: European planters in Bengal forced ryots into cultivating indigo under an oppressive contract system (ryoti system), leading to perpetual indebtedness.
  • The Revolt: In 1859, ryots in Nadia district, led by Digambar and Bishnu Biswas, collectively refused to grow indigo. They organised a social boycott of planters’ agents and resisted eviction attempts.
  • Role of Intelligentsia: This revolt was distinguished by the strong support it received from the Bengali middle class. Dinabandhu Mitra’s play, “Neel Darpan” (The Mirror of Indigo, 1860), poignantly depicted the planters’ brutality. The Indian press, particularly Harish Chandra Mukherjee’s “Hindoo Patriot,” actively campaigned for the ryots’ cause.
  • Outcome: The government appointed the Indigo Commission (1860), which found the planters guilty of coercion. A government notification stated that ryots could not be compelled to grow indigo, leading to the collapse of indigo cultivation in Bengal.
• Pabna Agrarian League (1873):
  • Grievances: In the Pabna district of East Bengal, zamindars engaged in rack-renting, imposed illegal cesses (abwabs), and attempted to prevent tenants from acquiring occupancy rights under the Rent Act of 1859.
  • Methodology: The peasants formed an agrarian league, refused to pay enhanced rents, and raised funds to challenge the zamindars in court. The movement was largely non-violent and legalistic.
  • Middle-Class Role: The intelligentsia was divided. While some like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee supported the zamindars, others like R.C. Dutt and the Indian Association led by Surendranath Banerjea supported the tenants.
  • Outcome: The government passed the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885, which provided greater protection to tenants.
• Deccan Riots (1875):
  • Background: In the Ryotwari areas of Poona and Ahmednagar, peasants were burdened by high land revenue and fell deeply into debt to Marwari and Gujarati moneylenders, especially after the crash of cotton prices following the end of the American Civil War (1861-65).
  • Methodology: The movement started as a social boycott of moneylenders. When this failed, it turned violent. Ryots systematically attacked the houses and shops of moneylenders, but their main goal was to seize and burn the debt bonds and deeds.
  • Middle-Class Role: The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, under Justice M.G. Ranade, conducted a detailed investigation and supported the peasants’ cause.
  • Outcome: The government appointed the Deccan Riots Commission and passed the Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act in 1879, which placed restrictions on the alienation of peasants’ land and regulated moneylenders’ activities.

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Prelims Pointers

• Dikus: Term used by Santhals for outsiders (moneylenders, zamindars, British officials).
• Khuntkatti System: Communal land ownership practiced by the Mundas in the Chotanagpur region.
• Podu/Jhum: Terms for shifting cultivation, which was banned by the British.
• Indian Forest Act, 1878: Classified forests into Reserved, Protected, and Village categories, severely restricting tribal rights.
• Poligar Rebellion (1799-1805): Occurred in the Madras Presidency. A key leader was Kattabomman Nayak.
• Dewan Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1809): Took place in the princely state of Travancore.
• Pagal Panthis: A semi-religious sect in East Bengal led by Karam Shah and Tipu Shah.
• Faraizi Movement: Started by Haji Shariatullah in East Bengal; later led by his son, Dudu Mian.
• Kol Uprising (1831-32): Took place in the Chotanagpur region of modern-day Jharkhand.
• Khasi Uprising (1829-33): Led by Tirath Singh against road construction in the Khasi hills.
• Santhal Rebellion (Hul) (1855-56):
  1. Location: Damin-i-Koh (Rajmahal Hills, Jharkhand).
  2. Leaders: Sido and Kanhu Murmu.
• Munda Rebellion (Ulgulan) (1899-1900):
  1. Location: Chotanagpur region, south of Ranchi.
  2. Leader: Birsa Munda. ‘Ulgulan’ means ‘The Great Tumult’.
• Rampa Rebellion (1922-24): Led by Alluri Sitarama Raju in the Andhra region.
• Indigo Revolt (1859-60):
  1. Location: Nadia district, Bengal.
  2. Leaders: Digambar Biswas and Bishnu Biswas.
  3. Associated Play: “Neel Darpan” by Dinbandhu Mitra.
  4. Associated Newspaper: “Hindoo Patriot” by Harish Chandra Mukherjee.
• Pabna Agrarian League (1873): Occurred in Pabna, East Bengal.
• Deccan Riots (1875): Occurred in Poona and Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra.
• Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act: Passed in 1879 as a consequence of the Deccan Riots.

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Mains Insights

1. Nature and Character of Early Popular Resistance:

• Restorative vs. Transformative: Most pre-1857 uprisings were ‘restorative’ in nature, aiming to overthrow the new colonial regime and restore the pre-colonial order. Post-1857 movements, like Pabna and Deccan, were often less ambitious, seeking redressal of specific grievances within the colonial framework itself.
• Role of Religion and Millenarianism: Religion provided a powerful ideology and organizational base. Movements like the Faraizi, Pagal Panthi, and Munda Ulgulan had strong religious and millenarian (predicting a sudden, radical transformation of society) undercurrents. It gave the rebels a sense of divine sanction and courage against a powerful enemy.
• Historiographical Debate:
  • Colonial View: Dismissed these uprisings as mere problems of ‘law and order’ caused by religious fanaticism or criminal tendencies.
  • Nationalist View: Portrayed them as patriotic struggles and precursors to the modern freedom movement, sometimes overlooking their internal contradictions and localized nature.
  • Subaltern View (e.g., Ranajit Guha): Argues that these movements possessed an autonomous political consciousness. The rebels were not just objects of history but conscious agents who understood their oppressors and the structures of oppression, even if their ideology was not ‘modern’. This perspective helps appreciate the agency of peasants and tribals.

2. Shift in the Character of Peasant Movements (Pre- and Post-1857):

Feature	Pre-1857 Movements	Post-1857 Movements
Objective	Primarily overthrowing the British/zamindars and restoring the old order.	Focused on specific agrarian issues like rents, occupancy rights, and debt within the colonial legal framework.
Methodology	Primarily spontaneous and violent uprisings.	Greater use of legal methods, petitions, peaceful protests, and agrarian leagues. Violence was often a last resort.
Leadership	Deposed rajas, traditional chiefs, religious leaders.	Emergence of peasant leaders from within their ranks (e.g., Pabna) and significant support/leadership from the educated middle class (e.g., Indigo Revolt, Deccan).
Awareness	Consciousness rooted in traditional notions of justice and legitimacy.	Growing awareness and use of colonial laws, courts, and institutions to fight for their rights.
Territorial Reach	Localised and isolated.	Still regional, but with greater awareness and coverage in the nationalist press, linking them to a wider political discourse.

3. Impact of British Policies as a Root Cause:

• Land Revenue Policies: The introduction of private property in land, high revenue demands, and rigidity in collection were the single most important causes of discontent. They led to land alienation, indebtedness, and the rise of a parasitic class of intermediaries.
• Forest Policies: The commercialisation of forests and the restriction of tribal rights destroyed the traditional livelihood patterns of Adivasi communities, leading to impoverishment and resentment, which became a recurring cause for tribal uprisings throughout the colonial period.
• Administrative and Judicial System: The new systems were complex, expensive, and alien. They favoured the powerful (moneylenders, zamindars) and were seen by the rural poor as instruments of oppression rather than justice.

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Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following events? (UPSC CSE 2020) (a) The Revolt of 1857 (b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921 (c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60 (d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900

   Answer: (d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900

2. After the Santhal Uprising subsided, what was/were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government? (UPSC CSE 2018)

   1. The territories called ‘Santhal Parganas’ were created.
   2. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

   Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2 (The Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act was passed to regulate land transfers and protect Santhal lands.)

3. The Indigo Rebellion was about: (UPSC CDS 2021) (a) The peasants not wanting to grow indigo, but being forced to. (b) The peasants wanting to grow indigo but being forced not to. (c) The peasants not wanting to grow indigo, but being forced to grow it at a price that was unacceptable. (d) A protest movement that was led by a blue-mutant.

   Answer: (c) The peasants not wanting to grow indigo, but being forced to grow it at a price that was unacceptable. (This is the most precise answer as it includes the element of unremunerative prices, a core grievance.)

4. Who of the following was/were associated with the introduction of Ryotwari Settlement in India during the British rule? (UPSC CSE 2017)

   1. Lord Cornwallis
   2. Alexander Read
   3. Thomas Munro Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

   Answer: (c) 2 and 3 only (Lord Cornwallis is associated with the Permanent Settlement.)

5. Consider the following events: (UPSC CSE 2017)

   1. Indigo Revolt
   2. Santhal Rebellion
   3. Deccan Riot
   4. Mutiny of the Sepoys What is the correct chronological sequence of the above events? (a) 4-2-1-3 (b) 4-2-3-1 (c) 2-4-3-1 (d) 2-4-1-3

   Answer: (d) 2-4-1-3 (Santhal Rebellion: 1855-56; Sepoy Mutiny: 1857; Indigo Revolt: 1859-60; Deccan Riot: 1875)

Mains

1. The 1857 Uprising was the culmination of the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had occurred in the preceding hundred years of British rule. Elucidate. (UPSC CSE 2019)

2. Examine the linkages between the nineteenth century’s Indian Renaissance and the emergence of national identity. (UPSC CSE 2019) [Note: While not directly on revolts, the role of intelligentsia in peasant movements like Indigo Revolt is a relevant linkage.]

3. Why did the ‘moderates’ fail to carry conviction with the nation about their proclaimed ideology and political goals by the end of the nineteenth century? (UPSC CSE 2017) [Note: This provides a contrast to the direct action of peasant/tribal revolts and can be used to analyze different streams of anti-colonialism.]

4. How did the colonial rule affect the tribals in India and what was the tribal response to the colonial policies? (UPSC CSE 2016)

5. The tribal revolts of the 19th century were a response to the triple oppression of the colonial state, the zamindars, and the moneylenders. Discuss with examples. (A potential question based on the syllabus theme).