GS Notes

1.2.3 - Modern Indian History Notes 31

23 min read

Elaborate Notes

Mahatma Gandhi’s Ideology and Early Experiments

Mahatma Gandhi’s return to India in 1915 marked a pivotal moment in the Indian National Movement. Before launching all-India campaigns, he tested his philosophy of Satyagraha (truth force) and methods of non-violent resistance in a series of localized movements. These “pilot projects” not only validated his techniques but also established him as a leader of the masses, capable of mobilizing peasants and workers.

Gandhian Ideological Framework (Brief Overview)

  • Trusteeship: This socio-economic philosophy, articulated in his writings in journals like Young India and Harijan, posits that the wealthy should hold their excess wealth in trust for society. It was an attempt to address class conflict without advocating for class war, aiming for a voluntary conversion of the capitalist class into trustees of social wealth. This idea was later critiqued by socialists and communists as being utopian and impractical.
  • Arbitration: Gandhi advocated for resolving disputes, particularly between labor and capital, through impartial arbitration rather than strikes or lockouts, which he saw as forms of coercion. This was successfully, albeit partially, demonstrated during the Ahmedabad Mill Strike of 1918.
  • Universal Disarmament: A core tenet of his philosophy of Ahimsa (non-violence), Gandhi believed in complete disarmament for all nations. He saw violence as a cycle that could only be broken by a courageous and unilateral commitment to non-violence, a stance he maintained even during the Second World War.

Pilot Projects of Mahatma Gandhi

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

  • Historical Context: Champaran in Bihar was dominated by European indigo planters who forced local peasants into the exploitative tinkathia system. Under this system, peasants were compelled to cultivate indigo on 3/20th of their land holdings, often at prices fixed by the planters, leading to immense poverty and indebtedness. The invention of synthetic German dyes had made indigo cultivation unprofitable, yet the planters demanded high rents and illegal dues (abwabs) from peasants as a condition for releasing them from the obligation.
  • Gandhi’s Intervention: At the behest of a local peasant-leader, Rajkumar Shukla, Gandhi arrived in Champaran in 1917. The British District Magistrate of Champaran served him an order to leave the district immediately. In a defining moment, Gandhi defied this order, stating his readiness to suffer the penalty for his disobedience. This act is considered the first instance of Civil Disobedience in modern India.
  • Methodology and Outcome: Gandhi, along with a team of lawyers including Dr. Rajendra Prasad, J.B. Kripalani, and Mahadev Desai, conducted a detailed inquiry into the peasants’ grievances. The government, under pressure from Gandhi’s resolute stance and the mounting evidence, was forced to appoint an official Committee of Inquiry, with Gandhi as one of its members. Based on the committee’s recommendations, the Champaran Agrarian Act of 1918 was passed, abolishing the tinkathia system and refunding a portion (25 percent) of the money extorted from the peasants. As historian Bipan Chandra notes in “India’s Struggle for Independence,” the significance of Champaran lay not just in the tangible relief but in teaching the peasantry the power of organised, non-violent resistance.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

  • Historical Context: A dispute arose between the textile mill owners and workers in Ahmedabad over the discontinuation of a “plague bonus.” The workers demanded a 50% wage hike to compensate for the wartime inflation, while the owners were only willing to offer a 20% increase. The mill owners, including Ambalal Sarabhai, were in a position of power.
  • Gandhi’s Intervention: Anasuya Sarabhai, a social worker and Ambalal Sarabhai’s sister, invited Gandhi to intervene. After a thorough study of the situation, Gandhi proposed a 35% wage increase as a just compromise. When the mill owners rejected this, the workers went on strike.
  • Methodology and Outcome: To bolster the flagging morale of the striking workers, Gandhi undertook his first hunger strike (‘fast unto death’). This put immense moral pressure on the mill owners, who were also his personal friends. After three days, the owners agreed to submit the dispute to an arbitration tribunal. The tribunal eventually awarded the workers a 35% wage increase (some sources say 27.5%, the summary says 27.5% was the final increase after arbitration). A significant outcome was the formation of the Textile Labour Association (TLA) or Majoor Mahajan Sangh in 1920, which was founded on Gandhian principles of arbitration and trusteeship.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

  • Historical Context: In the Kheda district of Gujarat, a severe crop failure in 1918 led to widespread distress among the peasants. According to the land revenue code, if the crop yield was less than one-fourth of the normal produce, the peasants were entitled to full remission of the land revenue. The government, however, refused to grant this remission and insisted on full collection.
  • Gandhi’s Intervention: After his own investigations confirmed the peasants’ claims, Gandhi, supported by leaders like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Indulal Yagnik, advised the peasants to withhold payment of revenue. This marked the first Non-Cooperation movement led by him.
  • Methodology and Outcome: The Satyagraha involved peasants taking a pledge not to pay the revenue. The government retaliated by confiscating cattle and property and arresting satyagrahis. The movement demonstrated immense discipline. The struggle ended when the government issued instructions that revenue should be collected only from those who could afford to pay. As Judith M. Brown argues in “Gandhi’s Rise to Power” (1972), Kheda firmly established Gandhi’s leadership among the peasantry of Gujarat and brought leaders like Patel to the forefront of the national movement.

Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919)

  • Historical Context: During World War I, the British had enacted the repressive Defence of India Act, 1915, to curb revolutionary activities. As the war ended, the Indian populace expected significant political concessions. However, the government, based on the recommendations of a committee chaired by Justice S.A.T. Rowlatt, passed the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act in March 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act. These acts allowed for detention without trial, suspension of habeas corpus, and in-camera trials, effectively extending the wartime emergency powers into peacetime.
  • Gandhi’s Response: Gandhi viewed this as a “black act” and a betrayal of wartime promises. It was, in his words, a law that was “unjust, subversive of the principle of liberty and justice, and destructive of the elementary rights of an individual.” He decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha. This was significant as it was not undertaken under the banner of the Indian National Congress (INC), but through a newly formed Satyagraha Sabha.
  • Methodology and Events: Gandhi called for an all-India hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919, combined with fasting and prayer. This was the first all-India mass strike. The response was unprecedented, especially in urban centres. However, the arrest of Gandhi and other local leaders, particularly Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal in Punjab, led to widespread violence. The situation in Punjab was particularly tense, and the administration was handed over to the military under General Dyer by the Lieutenant Governor, Sir Michael O’Dwyer.
  • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: On April 13, 1919, the day of the Baisakhi festival, a peaceful, unarmed crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar to protest the arrests. General Dyer, viewing this gathering as a violation of the martial law orders prohibiting public assembly, entered the Bagh, blocked the only exit, and ordered his troops to fire on the crowd without warning. The official Hunter Committee report later stated 379 deaths, while Indian estimates were over a thousand.
  • Outcome and Significance: Horrified by the escalating violence across the country, Gandhi called off the Satyagraha on April 18, 1919, calling it a “Himalayan Blunder,” admitting he had underestimated the people’s readiness for disciplined non-violent action. The Rowlatt Satyagraha, despite its withdrawal, was a turning point. It marked the entry of the masses into national politics, demonstrated the potential of the hartal as a tool of political action, and irrevocably damaged the British claim to moral authority. It also convinced Gandhi of the necessity of gaining control over the INC organizational structure to launch a more controlled and effective all-India movement in the future.

Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22)

Background and Causes

  1. The Khilafat Issue: Indian Muslims regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader, the Khalifa. During World War I, they had supported the British on the assurance that the Khalifa’s position and the Ottoman Empire would be protected. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920), which dismembered the Ottoman Empire, were seen as a grave betrayal. The All-India Khilafat Committee, formed in 1919 by leaders like the Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali), Maulana Azad, and Hasrat Mohani, was launched to pressure the British government to change its policy towards Turkey.
  2. Post-War Discontent: The economic situation after the war was grim, with high inflation, heavy taxation, and food shortages. A devastating influenza epidemic (Spanish Flu) in 1918-19 also caused massive casualties and suffering.
  3. The Punjab Wrongs: The Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the subsequent imposition of brutal martial law in Punjab had created deep anger. The report of the official Hunter Committee on the massacre was widely seen as a whitewash, further enraging Indian public opinion.
  4. Dissatisfaction with Montford Reforms: The Government of India Act of 1919, which introduced the system of ‘Dyarchy’, fell far short of the expectations of self-government, leading to widespread political disappointment.

Launch of the Movement

  • Gandhi saw in the Khilafat issue a “golden opportunity” to unite Hindus and Muslims against the British. He convinced the INC leadership that supporting the Khilafat cause was essential for forging a united front.
  • The Khilafat Committee, at its Allahabad session in June 1920, formally adopted Gandhi’s program of non-cooperation.
  • Calcutta Special Session (September 1920): Presided over by Lala Lajpat Rai, the INC, despite initial opposition from leaders like C.R. Das and B.C. Pal (who favoured council entry), approved the non-cooperation program. The goals were threefold: redressal of the Punjab wrongs, rectification of the Khilafat wrong, and the attainment of Swaraj.
  • Nagpur Annual Session (December 1920): The non-cooperation resolution was formally ratified. This session marked a fundamental transformation of the INC:
    • Goal Changed: The aim was now the attainment of Swaraj by “all legitimate and peaceful means” (replacing the earlier “constitutional means”).
    • Organizational Restructuring: The party was reorganized for mass participation. The membership fee was reduced to four annas; Provincial Congress Committees were organized on a linguistic basis; and a 15-member Congress Working Committee (CWC) was created to function as the executive body for day-to-day affairs.

Phases and Events

  • The Program: The movement was to be implemented in stages. The first phase involved the boycott of titles, government schools and colleges, law courts, and legislative councils. It also included the promotion of Swadeshi goods, particularly hand-spun Khadi.
  • Mass Mobilization: The movement saw an unprecedented level of participation. Thousands of students left government institutions to join newly established national schools like Kashi Vidyapith and Jamia Millia Islamia. Lawyers like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Vallabhbhai Patel gave up their lucrative practices. The Tilak Swaraj Fund, launched by Gandhi, was oversubscribed, collecting over one crore rupees. The boycott of foreign cloth was a massive success, with imports halving between 1920 and 1922.
  • Visit of the Prince of Wales (November 1921): The visit was greeted with a nationwide hartal, which was largely successful but led to serious rioting in Bombay, where Parsis and Anglo-Indians who welcomed the Prince were attacked. This violence troubled Gandhi deeply.
  • Chauri Chaura Incident and Withdrawal: By late 1921, the movement was gaining momentum. Gandhi was planning to launch the next phase, Civil Disobedience, starting with a no-tax campaign in Bardoli (Gujarat). However, on February 5, 1922, at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh, a mob of protestors, provoked by police firing, attacked and set fire to a police station, burning 22 policemen alive.
  • Deeply disturbed by this act of violence, Gandhi, against the advice of almost all prominent leaders, unilaterally withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement. The Bardoli Resolution passed by the CWC in February 1922 formally suspended the movement and instructed peasants to pay taxes and tenants to pay rent.

Assessment of the Movement

  • Negatives:
    • The goal of “Swaraj in one year” was not achieved.
    • The sudden withdrawal demoralized cadres and led to a period of political inactivity and fragmentation.
    • The intermingling of religion and politics in the Khilafat movement, as argued by some historians, strengthened religious consciousness and contributed to communal tensions in the long run. The Moplah (Mappila) Rebellion in Malabar in 1921, which began as an anti-landlord and anti-British movement, acquired a strong communal color.
    • The Khilafat movement itself became redundant when Mustafa Kemal Atatürk abolished the Caliphate in Turkey in 1924.
  • Positives:
    • Mass Participation: NCM was the first true mass movement, extending to all parts of India and involving peasants, workers, students, and women on a large scale. As historian Sumit Sarkar points out in “Modern India,” the movement marked a qualitative shift in the social base of nationalism.
    • Geographical Spread: Nationalism reached remote corners of the country for the first time, including regions like Andhra, Sindh, and Rajasthan.
    • Social Broadening: It saw the merging of local grievances with the national struggle. Peasant movements like the Awadh Kisan Sabha and the Eka Movement, and tribal assertions against forest laws, became part of the NCM. The Akali Movement in Punjab also drew strength from it.
    • Political Awakening: The movement politicized a vast section of the Indian population and instilled a new sense of fearlessness and confidence in challenging British rule.
    • Hindu-Muslim Unity: Despite its eventual breakdown, the period saw an unprecedented level of Hindu-Muslim unity.
    • Rise of New Leadership: It nurtured a new generation of leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Sardar Patel who would dominate the political scene for decades.

Prelims Pointers

  • Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
    • First instance of Civil Disobedience by Gandhi in India.
    • Grievance: Tinkathia system (forcing cultivation of indigo on 3/20th of land).
    • Key local leader: Rajkumar Shukla.
    • Outcome: Champaran Agrarian Act, 1918.
  • Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918):
    • First Hunger Strike by Gandhi.
    • Grievance: Discontinuation of ‘plague bonus’.
    • Gandhi demanded a 35% wage increase.
    • Outcome: Formation of the Textile Labour Association (Majoor Mahajan Sangh).
  • Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
    • First Non-Cooperation movement by Gandhi.
    • Grievance: Demand for revenue remission due to crop failure.
    • Important leaders associated: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Indulal Yagnik.
  • Rowlatt Act (1919):
    • Official Name: Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919.
    • Based on recommendations of the Sedition Committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt.
    • Provisions: Arrest and detention without warrant or trial for up to two years.
  • Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919):
    • First all-India mass strike.
    • Not initiated by the INC, but by Gandhi’s Satyagraha Sabha.
    • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: April 13, 1919, in Amritsar.
    • Orders to fire given by: General Reginald Dyer.
    • Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab at the time: Sir Michael O’Dwyer.
    • Official committee to investigate the massacre: Hunter Committee.
  • Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22):
    • Khilafat issue cause: Harsh Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey.
    • Khilafat Committee leaders: Ali Brothers (Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali).
    • INC Special Session (Calcutta, Sep 1920): Passed the NCM resolution. President: Lala Lajpat Rai.
    • INC Annual Session (Nagpur, Dec 1920): Ratified the NCM resolution. President: C. Vijayaraghavachariar.
    • Key organizational change at Nagpur: Creation of the 15-member Congress Working Committee (CWC).
    • Chauri Chaura Incident: February 5, 1922, in Gorakhpur district, UP.
    • Movement withdrawn via the Bardoli Resolution (February 1922).
    • The Caliphate in Turkey was abolished by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924.

Mains Insights

  1. Gandhi’s Early Satyagrahas as a Strategic Foundation:

    • Cause-Effect: The localized experiments in Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda were crucial learning grounds for Gandhi. They allowed him to test his methods (Civil Disobedience, Hunger Strike, Non-Cooperation), understand the grievances of the Indian masses, and build a dedicated cadre of local leaders (Rajendra Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel). The success of these movements established his credibility and prepared the ground for his emergence as an undisputed all-India leader.
    • Historiographical View: Judith M. Brown in “Gandhi’s Rise to Power” argues that these movements were not just about addressing local issues but were instrumental for Gandhi in building the political networks and alliances necessary to capture the leadership of the Indian National Congress and launch national campaigns.

  2. Rowlatt Satyagraha: A Watershed in Indian Nationalism:

    • Analytical Perspective: The Rowlatt Satyagraha marked a definitive shift from elite, petition-based politics to mass-based agitational politics. It was the first time a nationwide hartal was used as a political weapon, demonstrating the power of mobilizing ordinary citizens. While Gandhi termed its violent turn a “Himalayan Blunder,” it was a strategic blunder with immense positive consequences: it awakened the Indian masses, exposed the brutal face of British imperialism through Jallianwala Bagh, and made Gandhi the central figure of the national movement.

  3. The Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Alliance: A Historiographical Debate:

    • A Masterstroke for Unity?: Nationalist historians like Bipan Chandra argue that Gandhi’s support for Khilafat was a brilliant strategic move. It seized a moment of intense anti-British feeling among Muslims and brought them into the mainstream of the anti-imperialist struggle, resulting in unprecedented Hindu-Muslim unity. It demonstrated that it was possible to unite Indians on a common political platform, even if their motivations were different.
    • A Seed of Communalism?: Critics, including some later historians and figures like M.A. Jinnah at the time, argued that by using a pan-Islamic religious symbol (the Caliphate), Gandhi inadvertently strengthened religious identities in politics. They contend that this approach legitimized the role of Ulemas and religious leaders in political mobilization, which ultimately proved detrimental to secular nationalism and contributed to the later communal polarization. The Moplah rebellion’s communal turn is often cited as an example of this danger.

  4. Assessing the Success and Failure of the Non-Cooperation Movement:

    • Beyond Immediate Goals: Judged by its stated goals of achieving Swaraj in a year and rectifying the Khilafat/Punjab wrongs, the movement was a failure. Its abrupt withdrawal also led to widespread disillusionment.
    • Long-Term Gains (The Real Success): The true success of the NCM lies in its long-term impact.
      • Politicization of the Masses: It transformed the INC from an elite club into a genuine mass-based party and took the message of nationalism to the farthest corners of India.
      • Erosion of British Legitimacy: The movement successfully challenged the moral and administrative authority of the British Raj. The boycott of councils, courts, and schools demonstrated a widespread rejection of colonial institutions.
      • Economic Impact: The successful boycott of foreign goods demonstrated the potential of economic nationalism as a weapon against colonialism.
      • Psychological Shift: It instilled a sense of fearlessness, pride, and self-confidence among Indians, preparing them for future, more intensive struggles. The withdrawal, followed by the Bardoli resolution’s emphasis on constructive work, also taught an important lesson about the need for discipline and training for a sustained non-violent struggle.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. Who of the following organized a march on the Tanjore coast to break the Salt Law in April 1930? (UPSC 2022) (a) V. O. Chidambaram Pillai (b) C. Rajagopalachari (c) K. Kamaraj (d) Annie Besant Answer: (b) C. Rajagopalachari

  2. With reference to the proposals of Cripps Mission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)

    1. The Constituent Assembly would have members nominated by the Provincial Assemblies as well as the Princely States.
    2. Any Province, which is not prepared to accept the new Constitution would have the right to sign a separate agreement with Britain regarding its future status. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (b) 2 only (Note: Although not directly from the summary, this is a relevant question from the Gandhian era.)

  3. With reference to Indian history, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)

    1. The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 recommended granting voting rights to all the women above the age of 21.
    2. The Government of India Act of 1935 gave women reserved seats in legislature. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (b) 2 only (Note: The dissatisfaction with the 1919 Act was a key reason for the NCM.)

  4. The object of the Butler Committee of 1927 was to? (UPSC 2017 - Relevant as it falls in the period after NCM) (a) Define the jurisdiction of the Central and Provincial Governments. (b) Define the powers of the Secretary of State for India. (c) Impose censorship on national press. (d) Improve the relationship between the Government of India and the Indian States. Answer: (d) Improve the relationship between the Government of India and the Indian States.

  5. The ‘Rowlatt Satyagraha’ was the first all-India struggle launched by Mahatma Gandhi. Which of the following statements about it is correct? (Based on UPSC Pattern)

    1. It was launched in response to the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act.
    2. The Satyagraha was launched under the aegis of the Indian National Congress.
    3. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre led to the immediate withdrawal of the Satyagraha. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (a) 1 only (Explanation: It was launched by Gandhi’s Satyagraha Sabha, not the INC. The withdrawal happened a few days after the massacre, due to widespread violence across India, not just Jallianwala Bagh.)

Mains

  1. Bring out the constructive programmes of Mahatma Gandhi during the Non-Cooperation Movement and Civil Disobedience Movement. (UPSC 2021) Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Explain that alongside the political program of boycott and defiance, Gandhi laid immense stress on the Constructive Programme, which he considered essential for building national self-reliance and preparing the masses for ‘Swaraj’.
    • Constructive Programmes during NCM:
      • Economic Self-Reliance: Promotion of Khadi and village industries by encouraging spinning (charkha) and weaving; boycott of foreign goods.
      • Educational Self-Reliance: Establishment of national schools and colleges (e.g., Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith) to replace government institutions.
      • Social Unity: Emphasis on Hindu-Muslim unity as a cornerstone of the movement; vigorous campaign against untouchability and for the upliftment of ‘Harijans’.
      • Local Governance: Establishment of Panchayats as alternative dispute resolution forums, boycotting British courts.
      • Social Reform: Campaign against liquor consumption and picketing of liquor shops, which also saw significant participation of women.
    • Constructive Programmes during CDM: The programmes continued and were intensified. The focus remained on Khadi, anti-untouchability (e.g., Poona Pact and Harijan Sevak Sangh), and village reconstruction. Gandhi saw these activities not just as social work but as an integral part of the political struggle for freedom, building the nation from the grassroots up.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the Constructive Programme was Gandhi’s blueprint for a non-violent social and economic revolution, aimed at empowering the masses and making Swaraj a tangible reality, not just a transfer of political power.

  2. The Non-Cooperation Movement and the Civil Disobedience Movement were the two major upsurges in the Indian freedom struggle under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Elucidate the similarities and differences between the two movements. (UPSC Pattern) Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Briefly introduce NCM (1920-22) and CDM (1930-34) as the first two pan-Indian mass movements led by Gandhi that significantly weakened the British Raj.
    • Similarities:
      • Leadership and Ideology: Both were led by Mahatma Gandhi and were based on the principles of Satyagraha, non-violence, and truth.
      • Goal: The ultimate goal of both was Swaraj, though the definition evolved from Swaraj within the empire to ‘Purna Swaraj’ by the time of CDM.
      • Methods: Both employed methods like boycott of foreign goods, schools, and courts, and promoted constructive work like Khadi and Hindu-Muslim unity.
      • Mass Participation: Both witnessed massive participation from diverse social groups, including peasants, workers, students, and women.
    • Differences:
      • Core Principle: NCM’s core was ‘non-cooperation’ with the colonial state (refusal to participate), while CDM’s core was ‘civil disobedience’ (active defiance of specific laws, like the Salt Law). CDM was a step up in terms of confrontation.
      • Context: NCM was a response to the Khilafat and Punjab wrongs. CDM was launched in the context of the failure of the Simon Commission and the demand for Purna Swaraj.
      • Participation: While both were mass movements, peasant participation was more organized and widespread in CDM. Business group participation was initially hesitant in NCM but much more pronounced in the initial phase of CDM. Muslim participation was significantly higher in NCM due to the Khilafat issue, whereas it was comparatively lower in CDM.
      • Withdrawal: NCM was withdrawn abruptly after a single incident of violence (Chauri Chaura). CDM was withdrawn in phases (Gandhi-Irwin Pact) and was a more prolonged struggle.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by stating that CDM was a more politically mature and radical movement that built upon the experiences and organizational foundations laid by the NCM, marking a clear escalation in the struggle for independence.

  3. To what extent did the role of the Moderates prepare a base for the wider freedom movement? (UPSC 2021) Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Define the Moderate phase (1885-1905) and their methods of ‘prayer, petition, and protest’. State that while their methods were later criticized, their early contributions were foundational.
    • Contributions of Moderates:
      • Economic Critique of Colonialism: Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji (Drain Theory), R.C. Dutt, and G.V. Joshi exposed the exploitative nature of British rule, which became a powerful tool for later mass movements.
      • Political and Administrative Reforms: Their persistent demands led to the Indian Councils Act of 1892, which expanded legislative councils, laying the groundwork for representative government.
      • Creation of a National Consciousness: They were the first to create an all-India political platform (INC) that fostered a sense of common Indian nationhood, transcending regional and linguistic loyalties.
      • Defence of Civil Liberties: They campaigned for freedom of speech, press, and association, creating a democratic tradition that was essential for future struggles.
    • Limitations: Their narrow social base (educated urban elite) and their faith in British justice limited their effectiveness and appeal to the masses.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the Moderates, despite their limitations, acted as the necessary first stage of Indian nationalism. They created the political and ideological framework, exposed the economic ills of British rule, and built the institutional platform (INC) upon which leaders like Gandhi could later launch massive, popular movements. They prepared the ‘seedbed’ for the national movement to grow.

  4. How did the Jallianwala Bagh massacre alter the course of the Indian struggle for freedom? (UPSC Pattern) Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Briefly describe the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of April 13, 1919, as a turning point in Indo-British relations and the Indian freedom struggle.
    • Immediate Impact:
      • Loss of Faith in British Justice: The brutality of the act and the subsequent justification by British officials (Hunter Committee report seen as a whitewash, collection of funds for General Dyer in Britain) shattered the faith of even moderate Indians in the British sense of justice and fairness.
      • Rise of Gandhi: It provided the immediate context for Gandhi to transform the INC and launch the Non-Cooperation Movement. The “Punjab Wrongs” became a central rallying cry for the NCM.
    • Long-Term Impact:
      • Shift to Mass Politics: It demonstrated that the methods of petition and prayer were futile and that a more direct, mass-based confrontation was necessary. It was a catalyst for the transition from elite politics to mass politics.
      • Intensification of Nationalism: The massacre created a deep and unbridgeable psychological gulf between the rulers and the ruled. It infused a new sense of anger and determination into the nationalist movement.
      • Inspiration for Revolutionaries: For many, like Bhagat Singh, the massacre was a formative experience that pushed them towards revolutionary nationalism as they lost faith in non-violent methods.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that Jallianwala Bagh was a moment of brutal awakening. It ended the era of loyalist politics,

Graph View