GS Notes

1.2.3 - Modern Indian History Notes 33

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Elaborate Notes

Revolutionary Activities from 1922 Onwards

The sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) by Mahatma Gandhi following the Chauri Chaura incident in February 1922 left a political vacuum and engendered a sense of disillusionment, particularly among the younger, more radical nationalists. These revolutionaries, who had temporarily suspended their activities to join the mass movement, felt betrayed. They were disinclined towards the Gandhian program of constructive work and the Swarajists’ strategy of parliamentary politics, which they viewed as passive and ineffective. This disillusionment, coupled with the global ideological currents of the time, spurred a revival of revolutionary activities in two distinct phases.

  • Ideological Influences: The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917) had a profound impact. It introduced socialist and communist ideas into the Indian political discourse. The revolutionaries were drawn to its twin ideals: a pro-poor, anti-imperialist, and egalitarian social order, and the sanctioning of armed struggle as a legitimate method to overthrow an oppressive state. This marked a significant ideological evolution from the earlier revolutionaries who were primarily inspired by religious nationalism and heroic individualism. As historian Bipan Chandra notes in India’s Struggle for Independence (1988), the new generation of revolutionaries was moving “from individual heroic action to mass-based politics and from nationalism to socialism.”

The Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), 1924

  • Formation and Objective: In October 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from across North India was convened in Kanpur. This led to the formation of the Hindustan Republican Association (or Army). Its key founders included Ram Prasad Bismil, Sachin Sanyal, Ashfaqullah Khan, and Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee. The HRA’s manifesto, titled The Revolutionary, articulated its primary objective: to establish a “Federal Republic of the United States of India” through an organized and armed revolution. A key feature of their vision was the principle of universal adult franchise, indicating a commitment to a democratic polity.

The Kakori Robbery Case, 1925

  • The Incident: To fund their activities, particularly the procurement of arms, the HRA planned and executed a robbery of a government treasury. On August 9, 1925, they stopped the Number 8 Down Train travelling from Shahjahanpur to Lucknow and looted the official railway cash near the town of Kakori.
  • Aftermath: The British government responded with a massive crackdown. A large number of HRA members were arrested, leading to the infamous Kakori Conspiracy Case. The trial resulted in the execution of four prominent leaders: Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Roshan Singh, and Rajendra Lahiri. Ashfaqullah Khan is particularly remembered for his profound secularism and patriotism, becoming a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity in the freedom struggle. Many others were sentenced to long-term imprisonment, including Sachin Sanyal who was deported to the Cellular Jail in the Andamans. While the Kakori incident dealt a severe blow to the HRA, a few, like Chandrashekhar Azad, managed to evade arrest.

The Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA), 1928

  • Revival and Ideological Shift: The remnants of the HRA, along with new, younger recruits, regrouped under the leadership of Chandrashekhar Azad. In a historic meeting at the ruins of Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi in September 1928, they reconstituted the organization as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA). The inclusion of the term “Socialist” was a deliberate and significant act, championed by Bhagat Singh. It formally announced their commitment to not just political independence but also a socio-economic revolution to end exploitation of “man by man.” Key members of this new organization included Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar, Shivaram Rajguru, and Bhagvati Charan Vohra.

Lahore Conspiracy Case, 1928

  • Context: In October 1928, the Simon Commission was met with widespread protests across India. During one such protest in Lahore, veteran nationalist leader Lala Lajpat Rai was severely injured in a police lathi charge ordered by the Superintendent of Police, James Scott. Rai succumbed to his injuries a few weeks later, on November 17, 1928.
  • The Assassination: To avenge the death of ‘Punjab Kesari’, the HSRA planned to assassinate James Scott. On December 17, 1928, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Chandrashekhar Azad executed the plan. However, in a case of mistaken identity, they assassinated John P. Saunders, the Assistant Superintendent of Police, instead. This act came to be known as the Lahore Conspiracy Case.

Central Legislative Assembly Bombing, 1929

  • The Act and its Purpose: On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a low-intensity bomb from the visitors’ gallery into the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi. The timing was strategic: the Assembly was debating two contentious bills, the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill. These bills were designed to curtail civil liberties, suppress the trade union movement, and deport foreign communist activists, reflecting British fears of rising communist influence. The bombs were deliberately designed to be harmless. The revolutionaries showered leaflets with the slogan ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ (Long Live the Revolution) and the message that their act was “to make the deaf hear.”
  • Court as a Platform: Instead of escaping, Bhagat Singh and Dutt courted arrest. Their objective was not violence but to use the ensuing court trial as a platform for propaganda. They aimed to disseminate their revolutionary ideology, critique British imperialism, and inspire the youth of India through their defiance and sacrifice.
  • Hunger Strike and Martyrdom: While incarcerated, Bhagat Singh and his comrades initiated a hunger strike to protest the inhuman living conditions faced by political prisoners, demanding they be treated as ‘political prisoners’ rather than common criminals. This protest garnered nationwide attention. On the 64th day of the fast, Jatin Das died due to complications arising from forced feeding, which damaged his lungs. His martyrdom sparked massive protests across the country.
  • Execution: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were tried in the Lahore Conspiracy Case and sentenced to death. They were executed on March 23, 1931, in Lahore Central Jail. Chandrashekhar Azad, who remained at large, died in an encounter with the police at Alfred Park (now Chandrashekhar Azad Park) in Allahabad in February 1931, choosing to shoot himself rather than be captured.

Ideology of the New Revolutionaries

  • Beyond Terrorism: Bhagat Singh was clear in his court statements that he had “acted like a terrorist, but I am not a terrorist.” He articulated that individual acts of heroism were meant to awaken the masses, not as an end in themselves. He did not want the youth to blindly follow the path of the bomb and pistol but to engage in mass political work. To this end, he had founded the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha in 1926 as an open platform to politicize youth and workers.
  • Secularism and Socialism: The revolutionaries were deeply secular. Bhagat Singh, in his writings, identified communalism as an enemy as formidable as colonialism. Their vision of revolution was comprehensive. This was most eloquently expressed in The Philosophy of the Bomb, a document written by Bhagvati Charan Vohra in consultation with Azad and Yashpal. It defined revolution not merely as a change of rulers but as the establishment of a new social order based on socialist principles, ensuring an end to all forms of social, political, and economic exploitation. This demonstrated a mature political consciousness and a sophisticated ideological framework that set them apart from their predecessors.

Chittagong Armoury Raid, 1930-33

  • Leadership and Planning: While the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) was gaining momentum in 1930, a major revolutionary uprising took place in East Bengal (now Bangladesh). It was led by Surya Sen, a schoolteacher affectionately known as ‘Master Da’. He had organized a revolutionary group called the Indian Republican Army (IRA).
  • The Raid (April 18, 1930): The IRA planned a large-scale, coordinated attack in Chittagong. The plan involved simultaneously raiding the police armoury and the armoury of the auxiliary forces to seize weapons, destroying the telephone and telegraph lines to isolate Chittagong, and disrupting the railway link with the rest of Bengal. The raid was largely successful; they seized arms, hoisted the national flag, and proclaimed a Provisional Revolutionary Government with Surya Sen as its head.
  • Key Features and Significance:
    • Group Action: Unlike the individual-centric actions of the HSRA, the Chittagong raid was a well-organized group action, the largest of its kind since the Revolt of 1857.
    • Women’s Participation: The IRA was notable for the active participation of women. Pritilata Waddedar led an attack on the European Club in Chittagong and consumed cyanide to avoid capture. Kalpana Dutt was arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment. Other young women, like schoolgirls Shanti Ghosh and Suniti Choudhury, shot dead the District Magistrate of Comilla in 1931, and Bina Das fired at the Bengal Governor during a university convocation ceremony in 1932.
    • Inspiration: Though the revolutionaries were eventually overwhelmed by British forces in the Battle of Jalalabad Hills and the movement was suppressed by 1933, the Chittagong uprising was a source of immense inspiration for the national movement.
  • Suppression: The British launched a severe repressive campaign. Surya Sen was arrested in February 1933, brutally tortured, and hanged in January 1934.

The Indian Statutory Commission / Simon Commission, 1927

  • Background and Appointment: The Government of India Act of 1919 included a provision for a commission to be appointed ten years after its implementation to review the constitutional progress and suggest further reforms. The Conservative government in Britain, led by Stanley Baldwin, appointed the commission two years ahead of schedule in November 1927. The primary political motive was a fear that a future Labour Party government might be more sympathetic to Indian demands.
  • Composition and Indian Opposition: The commission, officially named the Indian Statutory Commission, was chaired by Sir John Simon. It comprised seven members, all of whom were British Members of Parliament. The exclusion of any Indian members was seen as a grave insult. It was a violation of the principle of self-determination and a denial of the right of Indians to have a say in their own constitutional future. As stated by the Indian National Congress, it was a “deliberate insult to the self-respect of the people of India.”
  • Birkenhead’s Challenge: The then Secretary of State for India, Lord Birkenhead, arrogantly justified the all-white composition by challenging Indian leaders, stating that they were incapable of producing a consensus-based constitutional framework due to their internal communal divisions. This challenge was a direct catalyst for the drafting of the Nehru Report.
  • Boycott and Protests: The Indian National Congress, at its Madras session in December 1927 presided over by Dr. M.A. Ansari, resolved to boycott the commission “at every stage and in every form.” The Muslim League (under Jinnah), the Hindu Mahasabha, and other parties joined the boycott. When the commission arrived in India in February 1928, it was greeted with nationwide hartals, black flags, and the powerful slogan “Simon Go Back.” It was during one such protest in Lahore in October 1928 that Lala Lajpat Rai was fatally injured.

Four Delhi Proposals, December 1927

  • Context: In a bid to forge a united front against the Simon Commission and to find a solution to the communal question, a section of the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah met in Delhi. They put forward four proposals to be incorporated into any future constitution, in return for which they would give up their long-standing demand for separate electorates.
  • The Proposals:
    1. One-third representation for Muslims in the Central Legislature.
    2. Creation of three new Muslim-majority provinces: Sindh (to be separated from Bombay Presidency), and full provincial status for Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP).
    3. Reservation of seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their population.
    4. If the above demands were accepted, the Muslim League would agree to joint electorates.
  • Significance: These proposals represented a significant moment of potential compromise, as the Jinnah-led faction of the League showed a willingness to abandon separate electorates, a cornerstone of their politics since 1906. The proposals were accepted by the Madras session of the Congress (1927).

The Motilal Nehru Report, August 1928

  • Formation of the Committee: In response to Birkenhead’s challenge, an All-Parties Conference was convened in February 1928, which in turn appointed a sub-committee in May 1928 to draft a constitution for India. This committee was chaired by Motilal Nehru, with Jawaharlal Nehru as its secretary. Other prominent members included Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and M.S. Aney.
  • Key Recommendations: The report, published in August 1928, was the first major attempt by Indians to draft a constitutional framework for the country. Its main proposals were:
    1. Constitutional Status: Dominion Status for India, on par with other self-governing dominions like Canada and Australia.
    2. Structure of Government: A federal structure with a strong centre, with residuary powers vested in the central government. It proposed a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature at the centre.
    3. Franchise and Rights: Universal adult suffrage and a bill of 19 fundamental rights, including the right to form unions, freedom of conscience, and equality before the law.
    4. Territorial Reorganization: Reorganization of provinces on a linguistic basis.
    5. Secularism: No state religion and dissociation of the state from religion.
  • Proposals on the Communal Question: This was the most contentious part of the report.
    • It rejected the demand for separate electorates and proposed joint electorates with reservation of seats for minorities.
    • It recommended reservation for Muslims only in provinces where they were in a minority, and for non-Muslims in the NWFP. It rejected the idea of reservation in Muslim-majority provinces like Punjab and Bengal.
    • It agreed to the creation of NWFP and provincial status for Baluchistan. It accepted the separation of Sindh from Bombay, but with conditions regarding financial viability.
    • It rejected the demand for one-third reservation for Muslims in the Central Legislature, instead providing for reservation in proportion to their population.

Jinnah’s Amendments and the Calcutta All-Parties Conference (December 1928)

  • At the All-Parties Conference in Calcutta to consider the Nehru Report, Jinnah, representing the Muslim League, proposed three amendments:
    1. One-third representation for Muslims in the Central Legislature.
    2. Reservation for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal in proportion to their population until the implementation of universal adult franchise.
    3. Vesting of residuary powers in the provinces, not the centre.
  • The rejection of these amendments by the conference was a turning point. Jinnah felt that the Congress was not willing to accommodate minority concerns and famously remarked, “This is the parting of the ways.” This event pushed him back towards the more hardline sections of the Muslim League.

INC Calcutta Session, December 1928

  • Presided over by Motilal Nehru, this session approved the Nehru Report.
  • A major debate occurred between the older guard, who were satisfied with the goal of Dominion Status, and the younger faction, led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, who demanded ‘Purna Swaraj’ or Complete Independence.
  • As a compromise, Mahatma Gandhi proposed a resolution giving the British government a one-year ultimatum: grant Dominion Status by December 31, 1929, or the Congress would adopt Purna Swaraj as its goal and launch a mass Civil Disobedience Movement.
  • The session also passed resolutions on constructive work (promoting Khadi, anti-untouchability, etc.) to prepare the masses for the impending struggle.

Jinnah’s Fourteen Points, March 1929

  • In reaction to the rejection of his amendments and the Nehru Report, Jinnah consolidated the demands of various Muslim groups into a single document known as the ‘Fourteen Points’. These became the foundational principles for all future Muslim League politics. Key demands included:
    • A federal constitution with residuary powers vested in the provinces.
    • Provincial autonomy.
    • Continuation of separate electorates.
    • One-third representation for Muslims in the Central Legislature and cabinets.
    • Adequate representation in government services.
    • Protection of Muslim culture, religion, and personal law.
    • No bill or resolution to be passed if three-fourths of the members of any community in that body oppose it as being injurious to their community.

The Irwin Declaration (Diwali Declaration), October 31, 1929

  • Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, made a statement that the natural issue of India’s constitutional progress, as envisioned in the Montagu Declaration of 1917, was the “attainment of Dominion Status.” He also announced that a Round Table Conference (RTC) would be convened in London to discuss the Simon Commission report and future reforms.
  • The declaration was vague, offering no timeline and stating Dominion Status was merely the ‘intent’ or ‘eventual goal’. It was widely seen as a ploy to pacify Indian leaders and ensure their participation in the RTC.

The Delhi Manifesto, November 1929

  • In response, a conference of prominent national leaders issued the Delhi Manifesto, putting forward conditions for attending the RTC:
    1. The purpose of the RTC should not be to discuss when Dominion Status would be granted, but to formulate a scheme for its implementation.
    2. The Congress should have majority representation at the conference.
    3. A general amnesty for political prisoners.
  • Lord Irwin rejected these conditions, stating he could not prejudge the outcome of the conference.

INC Lahore Session, December 1929

  • The rejection of the Delhi Manifesto and the expiry of the one-year ultimatum set the stage for a historic session of the Congress in Lahore, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru.
  • Key Resolutions:
    1. Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence): The goal of Dominion Status was officially abandoned, and Purna Swaraj was declared as the creed of the Congress.
    2. Boycott of RTC: The Congress resolved to boycott the upcoming Round Table Conference.
    3. Independence Day: It was decided that January 26, 1930, would be celebrated as the first ‘Purna Swaraj Day’ (Independence Day), with the public taking an ‘Independence Pledge’.
    4. Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM): The session authorized the All India Congress Committee (AICC) to launch a program of civil disobedience, including non-payment of taxes, at a time and place of its choosing.
    5. Withdrawal from Legislatures: Congress members were directed to resign from their seats in the central and provincial legislatures.
  • This session marked a radical shift in the national movement’s objective and strategy, paving the way for the next great mass struggle, the Civil Disobedience Movement, which Gandhi would launch with his Dandi March in March 1930.

Prelims Pointers

  • Hindustan Republican Association (HRA): Founded in 1924 in Kanpur by Ram Prasad Bismil, Sachin Sanyal, and Jogesh Chatterjee.
  • HRA Manifesto: Titled The Revolutionary.
  • Kakori Robbery: Occurred on August 9, 1925. Leaders executed were Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Roshan Singh, and Rajendra Lahiri.
  • Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA): Formed in September 1928 at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi.
  • Saunders’ Assassination: December 17, 1928, by Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Azad to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai’s death.
  • Central Legislative Assembly Bombing: April 8, 1929, by Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt.
  • Bills under discussion during bombing: Public Safety Bill and Trade Disputes Bill.
  • Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha: Founded by Bhagat Singh in 1926.
  • HSRA Ideological Document: The Philosophy of the Bomb, written by Bhagvati Charan Vohra.
  • Execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru: March 23, 1931, in the Lahore Conspiracy Case.
  • Chittagong Armoury Raid: April 18, 1930, led by Surya Sen (‘Master Da’).
  • Revolutionary group in Chittagong: Indian Republican Army (IRA).
  • Female revolutionaries in Bengal: Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Dutt, Shanti Ghosh, Suniti Choudhury, Bina Das.
  • Simon Commission (Indian Statutory Commission): Appointed in November 1927. All seven members were British.
  • INC Session to boycott Simon Commission: Madras Session, 1927, presided by M.A. Ansari.
  • Delhi Proposals: Put forward by a section of the Muslim League in December 1927. Key demand was 1/3rd reservation for Muslims in the Central Legislature in exchange for joint electorates.
  • Nehru Report: August 1928. Chaired by Motilal Nehru. Recommended Dominion Status for India.
  • Jinnah’s Fourteen Points: Presented in March 1929 as a response to the Nehru Report.
  • INC Calcutta Session (1928): Gave a one-year ultimatum to the British for Dominion Status.
  • Irwin Declaration (Diwali Declaration): October 31, 1929. Vaguely promised Dominion Status as the goal.
  • Delhi Manifesto: November 1929. Put conditions for attending the Round Table Conference (RTC).
  • INC Lahore Session (1929):
    1. Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru.
    2. Passed the ‘Purna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence) resolution.
    3. Decided to celebrate January 26, 1930, as Purna Swaraj Day.
    4. Sanctioned the launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Mains Insights

  1. Ideological Evolution of Revolutionaries:

    • Phase I (Pre-1920s): Primarily driven by religious zeal and nationalism, focusing on individual heroic acts (e.g., Anushilan Samiti, Yugantar). Their methods involved assassinating unpopular British officials.
    • Phase II (Post-1922): Marked a significant ideological shift. The failure of the NCM and the influence of the Russian Revolution led to the adoption of socialism.
      • HRA to HSRA: The change in name from ‘Republican’ to ‘Socialist Republican’ was not cosmetic. It signified a clear ideological commitment to creating a socialist state free from all forms of exploitation, not just foreign rule.
      • From Individual Action to Mass Action: While they still engaged in individual acts, leaders like Bhagat Singh understood these as a means of propaganda (‘to make the deaf hear’) to awaken and mobilize the masses, youth, peasants, and workers. The establishment of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha is a testament to this shift towards open political work.
      • Secularism: The new revolutionaries were staunchly secular. Bhagat Singh’s writings explicitly identified communalism as a primary threat to national unity, on par with colonialism. This contrasted with the religious undertones of some earlier revolutionary groups.

  2. The Simon Commission Boycott and its Consequences:

    • Cause: The all-white composition of the commission was the immediate trigger, seen as a racist and imperialist denial of India’s right to self-determination.
    • Effect: The boycott unified diverse political groups in India, including the Congress, a faction of the Muslim League, and others, creating a moment of national unity.
    • Unintended Consequence (Birkenhead’s Challenge): The British challenge for Indians to create their own constitution directly led to the All-Parties Conference and the Nehru Report. This forced Indian leaders to confront the difficult ‘communal question’ head-on.

  3. Nehru Report: A Blueprint and a Point of Departure:

    • Significance: It was a landmark document, the first major attempt by Indians to draft a comprehensive constitutional framework. It enshrined principles like fundamental rights, universal suffrage, and a secular state, many of which were later incorporated into the Constitution of independent India.
    • Failure and its Ramifications: Its failure to secure a consensus, particularly on the communal issue, had profound negative consequences.
      • Alienation of Muslim League: The rejection of Jinnah’s amendments at the Calcutta Conference marked a ‘parting of the ways’. It pushed Jinnah and a significant section of Muslim leadership away from the mainstream nationalist movement and towards a more separatist stance, culminating in the Fourteen Points.
      • Hardening of Communal Lines: The debate around the report exacerbated Hindu-Muslim political differences. The Hindu Mahasabha opposed concessions to Muslim demands, while the Muslim League felt their interests were not being protected. This failure to find common ground weakened the united anti-colonial front.

  4. The Lahore Congress (1929) as a Watershed Moment:

    • Shift in Goal: The adoption of the Purna Swaraj resolution marked a definitive shift from the ambiguous demand for Dominion Status to the clear goal of complete independence. This was a victory for the younger, more radical wing of the Congress led by Nehru and Bose.
    • Shift in Strategy: The resolution to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) signaled a return to mass politics after the interlude of Swarajist council entry. It prepared the ground for the next major phase of the freedom struggle.
    • Symbolism and Mobilization: The decision to celebrate January 26th as Independence Day was a powerful act of symbolic defiance that helped mobilize the masses and instill a sense of national pride and purpose. It transformed the abstract goal of freedom into a tangible, emotional experience for millions.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. The ‘Red Shirt’ movement was started by: (UPSC Prelims 2023 - Note: This question is related to CDM, the next topic, but relevant to the period) (a) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (b) Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (c) Muhammad Ali Jinnah (d) Iqbal Answer: (b) Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan. The ‘Red Shirts’ or Khudai Khidmatgars was a non-violent revolutionary group among the Pashtuns of NWFP, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan during the Civil Disobedience Movement.

  2. With reference to the proposals of Cripps Mission, consider the following statements: (UPSC Prelims 2022 - Note: This is post-period but tests understanding of ‘Dominion Status’)

    1. The Constituent Assembly would have members nominated by the Provincial Assemblies as well as the Princely States.
    2. Any Province, which is not prepared to accept the new Constitution would have the right to sign a separate agreement with Britain regarding its future status. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (b) 2 only. Statement 1 is incorrect as members from provinces were to be elected, not nominated. The concept of Dominion Status was a key feature, which was first formally proposed in the Nehru Report and later offered by the British.

  3. The object of the Butler Committee of 1927 was to? (UPSC Prelims 2017) (a) Define the jurisdiction of the Central and Provincial Governments. (b) Define the powers of the Secretary of State for India. (c) Impose censorship on national press. (d) Improve the relationship between the Government of India and the Indian States. Answer: (d) Improve the relationship between the Government of India and the Indian States. The Butler Committee was set up to examine the relationship between the paramount power (British) and the princely states, a key issue also addressed in the Nehru Report.

  4. The Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress (1929) is very important in history, because: (UPSC Prelims 2012 - slightly older but highly relevant)

    1. The Congress passed a resolution demanding complete independence.
    2. The rift between the extremists and moderates was resolved in that Session.
    3. A resolution was passed rejecting the two-nation theory in that Session. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of the above Answer: (a) 1 only. The session is famous for the ‘Purna Swaraj’ resolution. The extremist-moderate split was resolved in 1916. The two-nation theory was not a formal resolution for rejection at this session.

  5. With reference to the Indian freedom struggle, who of the following was the lady representative of India at the Second Round Table Conference? (UPSC Prelims 2012 - contextually relevant to the period) (a) Sarojini Naidu (b) Anie Besant (c) Aruna Asaf Ali (d) None of the above Answer: (a) Sarojini Naidu. She, along with Gandhi, represented the Indian National Congress at the Second RTC in 1931. This conference was a direct outcome of the events following the Simon Commission.

Mains

  1. The revolutionary movement in India witnessed a significant ideological shift in the 1920s. Discuss the factors that led to this transformation and its impact on the national movement. (Model Question)

    Answer Approach:

    • Introduction: Briefly mention the revival of revolutionary activities after the withdrawal of the NCM and introduce the ideological shift from religious nationalism to socialism.
    • Factors for Transformation:
      • Disillusionment with Gandhian Politics: Explain how the sudden end of NCM left a vacuum and pushed radical youth towards alternative methods.
      • Global Ideological Influences: Detail the impact of the Bolshevik Revolution (1917) and the rise of Marxist-Socialist ideas globally.
      • Growth of Working-Class Movements: Mention the rise of trade unionism in India and the influence of thinkers like M.N. Roy.
      • Intellectual Leadership: Discuss the role of figures like Bhagat Singh, who were voracious readers and thinkers, in steering the movement towards a socialist and secular vision.
    • Manifestations of the Shift:
      • Organizational Change: Contrast HRA (1924) with HSRA (1928), highlighting the addition of ‘Socialist’.
      • Shift in Objectives: Explain how the goal evolved from mere political independence to a complete socio-economic revolution to end exploitation (‘Inquilab Zindabad’).
      • Change in Tactics: From secret assassinations to using acts of defiance like the Assembly bombing for propaganda and mass mobilization (founding of Naujawan Bharat Sabha).
    • Impact on National Movement:
      • Inspiration for Youth: Their sacrifice created enduring legends that inspired countless Indians.
      • Popularizing Socialism: They mainstreamed socialist and secular ideas within the national discourse, influencing the left wing of the Congress (Nehru, Bose).
      • Pressure on Mainstream Politics: Their activities created pressure on both the British government and the moderate sections of the Congress.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by summarizing that the revolutionaries of the 1920s, especially the HSRA, were not just “terrorists” but politically conscious visionaries who made a lasting ideological contribution to the freedom struggle.

  2. To what extent did the Simon Commission and the subsequent Nehru Report harden the communal divisions in India? (Model Question)

    Answer Approach:

    • Introduction: Explain the context of the Simon Commission’s appointment and the initial unity displayed by Indian parties in boycotting it.
    • Birkenhead’s Challenge and the Nehru Report: Describe how the challenge to frame a constitution forced Indian leaders to confront the communal question.
    • Nehru Report’s Stance on Communal Issues:
      • Detail its proposals: joint electorates, rejection of 1/3rd reservation at the Centre, rejection of reservations in Muslim-majority provinces.
      • Explain why these were seen as a rejection of the core demands laid out in the Delhi Proposals (1927), which had offered a compromise.
    • Hardening of Divisions:
      • Jinnah’s Reaction: Explain the rejection of Jinnah’s three amendments at the All-Parties Conference and his “parting of the ways” statement.
      • Formulation of the 14 Points: Show how this became the definitive charter of Muslim communal demands, consolidating a separate political identity.
      • Role of other groups: Mention how the Hindu Mahasabha’s rigid stance during the conference also contributed to the failure of a consensus.
      • Loss of a Historic Opportunity: Argue that the failure to reach a compromise in 1928 was a critical missed opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity, the last time the Jinnah-led League had offered to give up separate electorates.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that while the Simon Commission boycott initially fostered unity, the process of drafting a constitutional alternative (the Nehru Report) exposed deep-seated communal fault lines and its ultimate rejection by key minority groups significantly hardened these divisions, setting a trajectory that would prove difficult to reverse.

  3. The Purna Swaraj resolution at the Lahore Congress of 1929 was the logical culmination of the political events of the preceding years. Elaborate. (Model Question)

    Answer Approach:

    • Introduction: State the significance of the Purna Swaraj resolution as a definitive shift in the goal of the national movement.
    • Preceding Political Events:
      • Rising Radicalism: The growing influence of the younger, radical wing within the Congress (Nehru, Bose) who were dissatisfied with the goal of Dominion Status.
      • Simon Commission Boycott (1927-28): The nationwide protests showed the political temperature was high and people were ready for a more aggressive stance.
      • Failure of the Nehru Report (1928): Its failure to gain acceptance and the British government’s indifference weakened the case for a compromise based on Dominion Status.
      • Calcutta Congress Ultimatum (1928): The one-year ultimatum was a clear sign that patience was running out.
      • Irwin’s Vague Declaration (Oct 1929): The Diwali Declaration was seen as too little, too late. It lacked a timeline and concrete commitment, failing to satisfy even the moderate leaders.
      • Rejection of the Delhi Manifesto (Nov 1929): Irwin’s refusal to accept the conditions for the Round Table Conference was the final trigger, closing the door on any possibility of a negotiated settlement for Dominion Status.
    • Culmination at Lahore: Explain how, with all avenues for compromise exhausted, the adoption of Purna Swaraj became the only logical and self-respecting course of action for the Congress.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by reiterating that the Lahore resolution was not an abrupt decision but a product of a chain of events that systematically eroded the appeal of Dominion Status and pushed the national movement towards the unequivocal demand for complete independence.

  4. Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of Bhagat Singh and his comrades on the course of the Indian freedom struggle. (UPSC Mains 2020 - GS Paper I, modified)

    Answer Approach:

    • Introduction: Introduce Bhagat Singh and the HSRA not merely as revolutionaries who engaged in acts of violence but as intellectuals with a clear vision for a post-independence India.
    • Key Thoughts and Ideologies:
      • Socialism: Elaborate on their vision of a socialist state, inspired by Marxism, to end the exploitation of peasants and workers. Mention their slogan ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ and its meaning.
      • Secularism: Discuss Bhagat Singh’s writings on communalism, arguing that it was as big an enemy as colonialism and a tool used by the British.
      • Atheism and Rationalism: Mention his essay “Why I Am an Atheist,” showcasing his commitment to reason over dogma.
      • Critique of Imperialism: Explain how they saw imperialism not just as political subjugation but as a system of economic exploitation.
      • Redefinition of Revolution: Quote from The Philosophy of the Bomb to show that for them, revolution was about a fundamental change in the social and economic order, not just a change of rulers.
    • Significance and Impact:
      • Inspiration and Mobilization: Their selfless sacrifice and defiance in court inspired a generation of youth to join the freedom struggle.
      • Ideological Contribution: They injected a powerful strain of socialist and secular thought into the national movement, strengthening the left-wing elements within Congress and other parties.
      • Broadening the Goal of Freedom: They helped broaden the definition of freedom from mere political independence to include social and economic justice for the masses.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the legacy of Bhagat Singh and his comrades lies not just in their martyrdom but in their profound and progressive ideological contributions that enriched the discourse of the freedom struggle and continue to resonate in modern India.

  5. Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian phase. Elaborate on the contribution of revolutionaries in this regard. (UPSC Mains 2019 - GS Paper I, modified)

    Answer Approach:

    • Introduction: Acknowledge the Gandhian phase as the era of mass movements but state that other parallel streams, like the revolutionaries, also played a crucial role.
    • Contribution of Revolutionaries (1920s-30s):
      • Sustaining Momentum: They kept the spirit of resistance alive during periods when the mass movements were dormant (e.g., after the NCM withdrawal).
      • Ideological Enrichment:
        • Socialism and Secularism: Discuss the HSRA’s role in popularizing socialist and secular ideas, providing an alternative to both Gandhian non-violence and communal politics.
        • Vision of a New Society: Highlight their focus on a post-independence society free of exploitation, influencing the Karachi Resolution (1931) of the Congress.
      • Mobilization of Youth: Their daring acts and ultimate sacrifice had a profound emotional appeal, especially for the youth, drawing them into the anti-colonial struggle.
      • Creating Pressure: Their activities created constant pressure on the British administration, demonstrating that the desire for freedom was intense and could take violent forms if peaceful avenues were blocked.
      • Geographical Spread: Mention the Chittagong Armoury Raid to show their influence was not limited to North India, with figures like Surya Sen leading significant uprisings.
    • Relationship with the Gandhian Movement: Note that while their methods differed, their ultimate goal was the same. There was often a complex relationship of critique and mutual respect. Gandhi condemned their violence but admired their patriotism and sacrifice.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the revolutionaries, through their ideological clarity, unwavering courage, and ultimate sacrifice, provided a vital and radical dimension to the Gandhian-led nationalist movement, thereby strengthening and enriching it significantly.

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