GS Notes

1.2.3 - Modern Indian History Notes 34

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Elaborate Notes

Gandhi’s Eleven-Point Demands (1930)

In January 1930, following the Lahore Congress resolution on Purna Swaraj (December 1929), Mahatma Gandhi presented a set of eleven demands to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin. These demands were a strategic move to gauge the government’s intentions and to frame the impending Civil Disobedience Movement around concrete, relatable grievances. Presented through his newspaper Young India, they were designed to unite various sections of Indian society. The demands were a mix of general interests, specific bourgeois needs, and crucial peasant grievances.

  • General Administrative & Financial Reforms:

    • Reduce military expenditure and salaries of civil servants by 50%: This addressed the “drain of wealth” critique, arguing that India’s administrative and military structure was excessively expensive and served imperial, not Indian, interests.
    • Total prohibition of intoxicants: This was a moral and social reform demand, appealing to Gandhi’s principles and also resonating with social reformers and conservative sections of society.
    • Release of all political prisoners: This was a direct challenge to the colonial state’s repressive apparatus.
    • Reforms in the Criminal Investigation Department (CID): The demand to place the CID under popular control aimed to curb its use as a tool for political surveillance and suppression of the nationalist movement.
    • Amendments to the Arms Act: To allow citizens to bear arms for self-defence, challenging the racial and political basis of the existing act which disarmed Indians.

  • Middle-Class/Bourgeoisie Issues:

    • Change the Rupee-Sterling exchange ratio to 1s 4d: The prevailing higher rate of 1s 6d was seen as detrimental to Indian exporters and beneficial to British importers. This demand was strongly supported by the Indian capitalist class, as articulated by bodies like the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI).
    • Introduce textile protection: A demand for tariffs on foreign cloth to protect the nascent Indian textile industry from competition, particularly from Lancashire.
    • Reserve coastal shipping for Indians: This aimed to break the monopoly of British shipping companies and foster the growth of an Indian merchant marine.

  • Peasant Issues:

    • Reduce land revenue by 50%: This was a direct appeal to the vast agrarian population suffering under high tax burdens, which were exacerbated by the onset of the Great Depression.
    • Abolish the salt tax and the government’s salt monopoly: This was the most ingenious demand. Salt was a universal commodity consumed by every Indian, rich or poor. The tax on it, though small in absolute terms, symbolised the exploitative nature of British rule. As historian Sumit Sarkar notes in Modern India, 1885-1947 (1983), the salt issue had a “unifying potential” that could cut across class and community divides.

Lord Irwin’s non-committal and negative response provided the immediate pretext for Gandhi to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.

The Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM), 1930-34

The CDM was a landmark movement in the Indian National Movement, marking a significant escalation from the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) of 1920-22.

  • Reasons for Launch:

    1. Political Disillusionment: The all-white Simon Commission (1927) was boycotted for its lack of Indian representation. The Nehru Report (1928), an Indian attempt at constitution-making, was rejected by the British. The Delhi Manifesto (1929), which sought assurances on Dominion Status as a basis for attending the Round Table Conference, was also rebuffed by Lord Irwin. Finally, the rejection of Gandhi’s 11-point demands closed the door for negotiations.
    2. Economic Crisis (The Great Depression): The global economic crash of 1929 had a catastrophic impact on the Indian agrarian economy. Prices of agricultural commodities plummeted, but the government refused to reduce its revenue demands. As noted by historian Bipan Chandra in India’s Struggle for Independence, this created an explosive situation in the countryside, making peasants receptive to a no-tax movement. Workers in urban areas also faced retrenchment and wage cuts.
    3. Strategic Choice of Salt: Gandhi’s choice of salt as the central issue was a masterstroke. It was a tangible, everyday grievance that did not have any communal overtones. The Muslim League could not argue that a campaign against the salt tax was a ‘Hindu’ demand, thus providing a broad, inclusive platform for the movement.

  • Plan and Implementation: The movement was planned in two distinct stages.

    • Stage 1 (Violation of Salt Laws and Boycott):
      • Dandi March (March 12 - April 6, 1930): Gandhi, along with 78 followers, marched over 240 miles from his Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad to the coastal village of Dandi. Upon reaching Dandi, he symbolically broke the salt law by manufacturing salt from seawater.
      • Nationwide Replication: The march inspired similar acts of civil disobedience across India. In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajagopalachari led a salt march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam. In Malabar, K. Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payyanur.
      • Dharasana Salt Works Satyagraha (May 1930): After Gandhi’s arrest on May 5, 1930, the planned peaceful ‘raid’ on the Dharasana salt pans in Gujarat was led by Abbas Tyabji and later by Sarojini Naidu and Gandhi’s son, Manilal Gandhi. The American journalist Webb Miller’s graphic accounts of the non-violent satyagrahis marching forward to be brutally beaten by the police were published worldwide, exposing the violent face of British imperialism.
      • Other Protests: In Assam, a powerful student protest developed against the Cunningham Circular, which compelled students and their guardians to furnish assurances of good behaviour. In the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s organisation of social reformers, the Khudai Khidmatgars (Servants of God), also known as ‘Red Shirts’, played a pivotal role.
    • Stage 2 (Broadening the Movement): After Gandhi’s arrest, the movement intensified and diversified.
      • No-Revenue and No-Chowkidari Tax Campaigns: Peasants in Ryotwari and Mahalwari areas refused to pay land revenue, while in Zamindari areas (like Bihar and Bengal), a campaign was launched against the chowkidari tax, a hated levy for village watchmen.
      • Violation of Forest Laws: In regions like the Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and Karnataka, tribal communities and peasants violated colonial forest laws which had restricted their traditional rights.

  • Impact of the Movement:

    • Positives:
      • Increased Radicalism: Unlike the NCM, which was withdrawn after the Chauri Chaura incident, Gandhi did not call off the CDM despite sporadic violence, showing a greater willingness to endure repression.
      • Mass Participation: The movement witnessed an unprecedented level of mass participation, far exceeding that of the NCM. The number of people imprisoned was about three times higher.
      • Capitalist Class Participation: For the first time, the Indian capitalist class, organized under bodies like FICCI, provided significant support, especially through boycotting imported goods. Foreign cloth imports fell by half. However, as analyzed by Aditya Mukherjee in Imperialism, Nationalism and the Making of the Indian Capitalist Class (2002), their support was tactical and they often pushed for compromise when their business interests were threatened.
      • Large-scale Women’s Participation: The CDM was remarkable for the massive participation of women from all walks of life, both in urban and rural areas. They picketed shops, manufactured salt, and faced police brutality. Gandhi’s moral and spiritual authority helped overcome social inhibitions against their public role. Leaders like Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay played a crucial role in persuading Gandhi to allow women to participate in the salt satyagraha.
    • Negatives and Limitations:
      • Low Muslim Participation: Except in the NWFP, Muslim participation was significantly lower than during the NCM. The alienation following the collapse of the Khilafat issue, communal riots in the late 1920s, and the Muslim League’s drift away from the Congress contributed to this.
      • Limited Worker Participation: The Communist Party of India (CPI), following the Comintern’s ultra-left line, instructed its members to boycott the ‘bourgeois’ CDM. This resulted in a general lack of organized worker participation, with notable exceptions like the violent uprising in Sholapur.
      • Alienation of Middle-Class Youth: A section of the youth was increasingly drawn to revolutionary terrorism, inspired by figures like Bhagat Singh, and were skeptical of the efficacy of non-violence.
      • Rising Violence: Incidents like the armoury raid in Chittagong by Surya Sen (April 1930), the uprising in Sholapur after Gandhi’s arrest, and the events in Peshawar where soldiers of the Garhwal Rifles refused to fire on unarmed protestors, indicated that the movement was not entirely non-violent. This rising violence was one of the factors that pushed Gandhi towards a truce.

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact and the Round Table Conferences

  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): As the movement continued and repression mounted, Viceroy Lord Irwin sought a truce. The pact stipulated:

    1. Discontinuation of the Civil Disobedience Movement by the Congress.
    2. Participation of the Congress in the Second Round Table Conference (RTC).
    3. Release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence.
    4. Withdrawal of all ordinances promulgated in connection with the CDM.
    5. Permission for peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops.
    6. Permission for people living near the coasts to collect or manufacture salt for personal consumption. The government, however, rejected two of Gandhi’s key demands: a public inquiry into police excesses, and the commutation of the death sentences of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru. The failure to save their lives led to immense criticism of Gandhi from the youth.

  • Karachi Session of Congress (March 1931): Held under the presidency of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, this special session endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. It is famous for two landmark resolutions:

    1. Resolution on Fundamental Rights: Guaranteed basic civil liberties to all citizens.
    2. Resolution on National Economic Programme: This was a major step, outlining a future socio-economic structure for independent India with a distinctly socialist orientation, including state ownership of key industries and services, and land reforms.

  • Second Round Table Conference (September-December 1931): Gandhi attended as the sole representative of the Congress. The conference failed primarily due to the British government’s insistence on using the minorities issue to stall any real transfer of power. All minority groups, including the Depressed Classes led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, demanded separate electorates. The British refused to concede the central Indian demand for freedom. Gandhi returned to India empty-handed.

The Communal Award and the Poona Pact

  • Communal Award (August 1932): In August 1932, the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, announced the ‘Communal Award’. It not only continued separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, and others but also extended them to the Depressed Classes (today’s Scheduled Castes).
  • Gandhi’s Response and the Poona Pact (September 1932): Gandhi, imprisoned in Yerawada jail, saw this as a move to permanently divide Hindu society and “vivisect” it. He began a fast unto death in protest. This created immense pressure on Dr. Ambedkar, who argued that separate electorates were essential for the political empowerment of the Depressed Classes. After intense negotiations involving leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, a compromise was reached.
    • The Poona Pact was signed between Dr. Ambedkar (on behalf of the Depressed Classes) and upper-caste Hindu leaders. It abandoned the idea of separate electorates for the Depressed Classes.
    • In return, the number of seats reserved for them in provincial legislatures was increased from 71 (in the Communal Award) to 147, and 18% of the seats in the Central Legislature were also reserved for them under the principle of a joint electorate.

Second Phase of CDM and Harijan Campaign (1932-34)

  • On his return from the 2nd RTC, Gandhi found that the new Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, had unleashed severe repression. The Congress was outlawed, and its leaders were arrested. Gandhi resumed the CDM in January 1932.
  • However, the second phase lacked the enthusiasm and momentum of the first. The masses were exhausted, and repression was severe.
  • Gandhi, now increasingly focused on the issue of untouchability, launched a concerted campaign from jail. He started the weekly journal ‘Harijan’ (1933), founded the All India Anti-Untouchability League (later renamed Harijan Sevak Sangh), and undertook a 21-day fast. After his release, he conducted a nationwide ‘Harijan Tour’ of over 20,000 km.
  • The movement was formally withdrawn in May 1934. The Harijan campaign had a mixed response. While it brought the issue of untouchability to the forefront of national politics, many upper-caste Hindus remained orthodox, and a growing section of the Depressed Classes, under Ambedkar’s influence, began to seek independent political solutions rather than social integration within the Hindu fold.

The Government of India Act, 1935

The Act was the culmination of a long process involving the Simon Commission Report, the Round Table Conferences, and the British government’s White Paper (1933).

  • Key Features:

    1. All-India Federation: The Act proposed a federation consisting of British Indian provinces and the Princely States. However, this never came into being as the required number of princely states did not agree to join. They feared a loss of their autonomy and the potential spread of democratic ideas into their territories.
    2. Dyarchy at the Centre: At the federal level, subjects were divided into ‘Reserved’ and ‘Transferred’. Reserved subjects (e.g., defence, foreign affairs, ecclesiastical affairs) were to be administered by the Governor-General with the help of appointed councillors, without responsibility to the legislature. Transferred subjects would be administered by ministers responsible to the legislature.
    3. Provincial Autonomy: This was the most significant part of the Act that was actually implemented. Dyarchy was abolished in the provinces, and the entire provincial administration was placed under ministers responsible to the provincial legislatures. However, the Governors retained extensive ‘special powers’ and discretionary authority.
    4. Bicameral Legislature: The Act provided for a bicameral federal legislature (Federal Assembly and Council of State) and also introduced bicameralism in six out of eleven provinces.
    5. Distribution of Powers: A three-fold division of legislative power was made between the centre and the provinces through three lists: Federal List, Provincial List, and Concurrent List. Residuary powers were vested in the Governor-General.
    6. Franchise and Representation: The franchise was extended, granting voting rights to about 10% of the population. The system of separate electorates for communal representation was retained and expanded.

  • Critique: Indian nationalists universally condemned the Act. The Congress called it a “charter of slavery.” Jawaharlal Nehru remarked it was “a machine with strong brakes but no engine.” While it introduced provincial autonomy, the real power remained with the British-appointed Governors and the Viceroy, who had overriding powers. The federal part was designed to be weak and to use the princes to counter the nationalists. Nevertheless, its provisions, particularly the federal structure and provincial autonomy, heavily influenced the final Constitution of independent India.

Prelims Pointers

  • Gandhi’s 11 Demands (Jan 1930): Presented in the newspaper Young India.
  • Dandi March: Started from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930; ended at Dandi on April 6, 1930.
  • Regional Salt Marches:
    • Tamil Nadu: C. Rajagopalachari (Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam).
    • Malabar: K. Kelappan (Calicut to Payyanur).
  • Dharasana Satyagraha (May 1930): Led by Sarojini Naidu, Abbas Tyabji, and Manilal Gandhi after Gandhi’s arrest.
  • Khudai Khidmatgars: Also known as ‘Red Shirts’; a non-violent movement in NWFP led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi).
  • Chittagong Armoury Raid (April 1930): Led by Surya Sen.
  • Cunningham Circular: A government order in Assam against which students protested during CDM.
  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Signed on March 5, 1931.
  • Karachi Congress Session (1931):
    1. Presided over by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
    2. Endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
    3. Passed resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme.
  • Second Round Table Conference (1931): Mahatma Gandhi was the sole representative of the Indian National Congress.
  • Communal Award (August 1932): Announced by British PM Ramsay MacDonald; granted separate electorates to Depressed Classes.
  • Poona Pact (September 1932):
    1. Signed between Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and leaders of the Congress.
    2. Accepted joint electorates for Depressed Classes.
    3. Increased reserved seats for them in provincial legislatures from 71 to 147.
  • Harijan Sevak Sangh: Founded by Mahatma Gandhi in 1932.
  • ‘Harijan’ newspaper: Started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1933.
  • Government of India Act, 1935:
    • Proposed an All-India Federation (never implemented).
    • Introduced Provincial Autonomy and abolished Dyarchy in provinces.
    • Introduced Dyarchy at the Centre.
    • Established a Federal Court (set up in 1937).
    • Created a three-fold division of powers: Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent Lists.
    • Vested residuary powers with the Governor-General.
    • Separated Burma from India.

Mains Insights

  1. Civil Disobedience Movement vs. Non-Cooperation Movement:

    • Objective: NCM’s goal was Swaraj within the British Empire, while CDM was launched after the declaration of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
    • Method: NCM’s core was non-cooperation (boycotting institutions), while CDM’s core was civil disobedience (deliberate violation of laws, starting with the salt law). This represented a clear radicalization of the nationalist struggle.
    • Participation: CDM saw a more diverse and widespread participation, especially from the business class and women. Peasant participation was also more militant due to the context of the Great Depression.
    • Muslim Participation: A key difference was the significantly lower Muslim participation in CDM compared to NCM, which had the Khilafat issue as a unifying factor.

  2. The Strategic Genius of the Salt Satyagraha:

    • Unifying Symbol: Salt was a universal commodity, and the tax on it affected everyone. It bypassed class, caste, and religious divides, making it an ideal symbol for a mass movement.
    • Moral High Ground: Breaking a law on a commodity essential for life cast the British government in the role of an oppressor and the satyagrahis as fighting for a basic human right.
    • Non-Violent Confrontation: It was a perfect issue for a non-violent campaign. The act of making salt was simple and could be replicated by anyone, anywhere on the coast, making state control difficult. The expected brutal state response to such a simple act would expose the violence inherent in colonialism, as it did at Dharasana.

  3. Gandhi-Ambedkar Debate on Political Representation:

    • Ambedkar’s Position: Dr. Ambedkar believed that social reform and the goodwill of caste Hindus were insufficient to uplift the Depressed Classes. He argued that only through political power, secured via separate electorates, could they protect their interests and achieve true emancipation. For him, political rights preceded social reform.
    • Gandhi’s Position: Gandhi feared that separate electorates would politically separate the Depressed Classes from the Hindu community forever, making the abolition of untouchability impossible. He believed the solution lay in social reform and a change of heart among caste Hindus, for which he was willing to offer generous reservations under a joint electorate.
    • Historiographical View: The Poona Pact is viewed differently by historians. Some see it as a pragmatic compromise that prevented a major split in the anti-colonial front. Others, particularly Dalit scholars, view it as a moment where the independent political voice of the Depressed Classes was co-opted by the nationalist mainstream, delaying their political empowerment.

  4. Government of India Act, 1935: A Paradoxical Legislation:

    • ‘Charter of Slavery’: Nationalists rejected it because it withheld real power. The Governor-General and Governors retained vast discretionary powers (‘safeguards’), the federal structure was skewed in favour of unelected princely states, and the limited franchise kept the masses out of power.
    • Foundation of the Indian Constitution: Despite its rejection, the Act became a crucial blueprint for the Constitution of independent India. The federal scheme, the three legislative lists, the office of the Governor, provincial autonomy, and the parliamentary system were all adapted from the 1935 Act. This highlights the complex legacy of colonial constitutional reforms—they were designed to perpetuate rule but ended up providing the institutional framework for post-colonial governance.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the British colonial rule in India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)

    1. Mahatma Gandhi was instrumental in the abolition of the system of ‘indentured labour’.
    2. In Lord Chelmsford’s ‘War Conference’, Mahatma Gandhi did not support the resolution on recruiting Indians for World War.
    3. Consequent upon the breaking of Salt Law by Indian people, the Indian National Congress was declared illegal by the colonial rulers.

    Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (b) 1 and 3 only. Explanation: Statement 2 is incorrect. Gandhi supported the recruitment of Indians in World War I, hoping for a reciprocal gesture of goodwill from the British. Statement 3 is correct; after the Salt Law was broken and the CDM intensified, the government under Lord Irwin declared the Congress Working Committee an unlawful association in 1930.

  2. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact included which of the following? (UPSC 2020)

    1. Invitation to Congress to participate in the Round Table Conference
    2. Withdrawal of Ordinances promulgated in connection with the Civil Disobedience Movement
    3. Acceptance of Gandhi’s suggestion for enquiry into police excesses
    4. Release of only those prisoners who were not charged with violence

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only (c) 3 only (d) 2, 3 and 4 only

    Answer: (b) 1, 2 and 4 only. Explanation: The British government did not accept Gandhi’s demand for an enquiry into police excesses (Statement 3 is incorrect).

  3. The object of the Butler Committee of 1927 was to? (UPSC 2017) (a) Define the jurisdiction of the Central and Provincial Governments. (b) Define the powers of the Secretary of State for India. (c) Impose censorship on national press. (d) Improve the relationship between the Government of India and the Indian States.

    Answer: (d) Improve the relationship between the Government of India and the Indian States. Explanation: The Butler Committee was set up to examine the nature of the relationship between the princely states and the British paramount power, a key issue that became central to the discussions about the All-India Federation in the GoI Act, 1935.

  4. In the context of Indian history, the principle of ‘Dyarchy (diarchy)’ refers to (UPSC 2017) (a) Division of the central legislature into two houses. (b) Introduction of double government i.e., Central and State governments. (c) Having two sets of rulers; one in London and another in Delhi. (d) Division of the subjects delegated to the provinces into two categories.

    Answer: (d) Division of the subjects delegated to the provinces into two categories. Explanation: Dyarchy, as introduced by the GoI Act 1919 in the provinces, involved dividing provincial subjects into ‘Transferred’ (administered by ministers responsible to the legislature) and ‘Reserved’ (administered by the Governor and his council).

  5. With reference to the proposals of Cripps Mission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)

    1. The Constituent Assembly would have members nominated by the Provincial Assemblies as well as the Princely States.
    2. Any Province, which is not prepared to accept the new Constitution would have the right to sign a separate agreement with Britain regarding its future status.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    Answer: (b) 2 only. Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect. The Cripps Mission proposed that members from British India would be elected by the provincial assemblies, while representatives from princely states would be nominated by the rulers. Statement 2 is correct, as the proposal included a “provincial option” to secede from the Indian Union, a point heavily criticized by the Congress.

Mains

  1. “The Salt Satyagraha was a strategically brilliant move that galvanized the Indian masses and exposed the moral bankruptcy of the British Raj.” Elaborate. (Model Question)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Briefly introduce the context of the Dandi March (1930) as the launchpad for the Civil Disobedience Movement, following the Purna Swaraj declaration. State that the choice of salt was a masterstroke by Gandhi.
    • Strategic Brilliance of Choosing Salt:
      • Universal Grievance: Explain how the salt tax affected every section of society, rich and poor, Hindu and Muslim, thus acting as a powerful unifying symbol.
      • Simplicity and Mass Appeal: The act of making salt was simple, non-violent, and could be replicated across India’s vast coastline, making it a decentralized and participatory form of protest.
      • Economic Symbolism: It highlighted the exploitative nature of British economic policies that taxed a basic necessity of life.
      • Non-Communal Nature: It was an issue that could not be given a communal colour, unlike other political or religious issues.
    • Exposure of Moral Bankruptcy:
      • The Dharasana Satyagraha: Detail the events at Dharasana, citing Webb Miller’s accounts of how the state responded with brutal violence against peaceful, unarmed satyagrahis.
      • International Attention: Explain how this brutality, reported globally, shattered the British claim of a ‘civilizing mission’ and exposed the violent underpinnings of the Raj.
      • Moral High Ground: The non-violent defiance against an unjust law placed the freedom struggle on a high moral pedestal.
    • Conclusion: Conclude by reiterating that the Salt Satyagraha transformed the CDM into a true mass movement, demonstrated the power of non-violent resistance on a global stage, and significantly weakened the moral authority of British rule in India.

  2. To what extent did the Government of India Act, 1935 lay down the federal structure of the Constitution of India? (UPSC 2018, adapted)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: State that the GoI Act, 1935, was the last major constitutional legislation by the British for India and served as a foundational document for the Constitution of independent India, particularly its federal framework.
    • Federal Features of the 1935 Act Adopted in the Constitution:
      • Scheme of Federation: The concept of a federation comprising British provinces and Princely States, though it never materialized, was the precursor to the Union of States in the Indian Constitution.
      • Three Legislative Lists: The division of subjects into Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent lists was adopted almost directly into the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution as the Union, State, and Concurrent lists.
      • Provincial Autonomy: The Act’s provision for autonomy for provincial governments under responsible ministers formed the basis of the state governments in the Indian federal system.
      • Bicameral Legislature: The idea of a bicameral central legislature (Federal Assembly and Council of States) was adopted as the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
      • Federal Judiciary: The establishment of a Federal Court under the Act was the forerunner of the Supreme Court of India.
    • Differences and Limitations (Why the 1935 Act was not truly federal):
      • Sovereignty: The 1935 Act was not a sovereign document; power flowed from the British Parliament. The Indian Constitution derives its authority from “We, the People of India.”
      • Residuary Powers: In the 1935 Act, residuary powers were vested in the Viceroy, not the federal legislature, showcasing a lack of trust. In the Indian Constitution, they are with the Union Parliament.
      • Overriding Powers: The Viceroy and Governors had extensive discretionary and overriding powers that negated provincial autonomy and the federal principle. The Indian Constitution, while having a strong centre, does not grant such arbitrary powers to the President or Governors.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that while the GoI Act, 1935, provided the structural blueprint for Indian federalism, the Constitution of India transformed this colonial framework into a sovereign, democratic, and truly federal (albeit with a strong central bias) structure.

  3. The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) was a significant step forward from the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) in several respects. Analyze. (Model Question)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Briefly introduce both movements as major Gandhian mass struggles but highlight that CDM represented a maturation and radicalization of the nationalist movement.
    • Points of Advancement:
      • Goal: From ‘Swaraj’ (vaguely defined) in NCM to ‘Purna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence) as the explicit goal of CDM.
      • Methodology: From ‘non-cooperation’ (boycott, resignation) to ‘civil disobedience’ (active violation of laws). This was a direct challenge to British authority, not just a withdrawal of support.
      • Social Base: Mention the wider participation in CDM. Elaborate on the significant and organized role of the capitalist class (FICCI’s support) and the unprecedented mass participation of women.
      • Geographical Spread: While NCM was widespread, CDM saw new areas and groups becoming active, like the Pathans in NWFP and intense no-tax campaigns in various provinces.
      • Political Maturity: Gandhi’s refusal to call off the movement due to sporadic violence (unlike at Chauri Chaura) showed a greater understanding of the nature of mass movements and a higher level of mass preparedness for repression.
    • Areas of Regression or Stagnation:
      • Communal Unity: Acknowledge the major weakness of CDM—the lack of Hindu-Muslim unity, which was a hallmark of the NCM-Khilafat phase.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that despite the crucial limitation of diminished communal harmony, the CDM marked a clear advance in terms of its defined goal, radical methods, and the breadth of its social participation, taking the freedom struggle to a new level of intensity.

  4. Critically examine the debate between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar on the issue of separate electorates for the Depressed Classes, culminating in the Poona Pact. (Model Question)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Set the context of the Second RTC and the Communal Award of 1932, which brought the differing perspectives of Gandhi and Ambedkar on the political representation of the Depressed Classes to a head.
    • Ambedkar’s Standpoint:
      • Argument for Separate Electorates: Explain his belief that the Depressed Classes were a distinct minority, and only through separate electorates could they elect their ‘true’ representatives, free from the influence of the caste-Hindu majority.
      • Emphasis on Political Power: For Ambedkar, social reform was contingent on political empowerment. He saw separate electorates as a tool to gain a share in political power.
    • Gandhi’s Standpoint:
      • Threat of National Disintegration: Explain Gandhi’s fear that separate electorates would “vivisect” Hinduism and create a permanent political barrier between the Depressed Classes and the rest of Hindu society.
      • Emphasis on Social Reform: Gandhi believed the solution to untouchability was a moral and social one—a “change of heart” among caste Hindus. He saw it as an internal problem of Hinduism to be reformed from within.
    • The Poona Pact as a Compromise:
      • Terms: Detail the terms—abandonment of separate electorates in favour of a massive increase in reserved seats under a joint electorate.
      • Analysis: The pact was a compromise where Ambedkar secured significantly enhanced representation (political gain) while Gandhi prevented what he saw as a formal political split in Hindu society (social/nationalist gain).
    • Critical Evaluation and Legacy:
      • Discuss the long-term implications. For Gandhi’s supporters, it was a victory for national unity.
      • For many Dalit scholars and Ambedkarites, it was a forced compromise that co-opted the independent political assertion of the Dalits into the Congress-led nationalist framework, making their representatives dependent on caste-Hindu votes.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the debate and the Poona Pact remain a crucial and contentious chapter, highlighting the complex intersection of caste, religion, and nationalism in India’s freedom struggle.

  5. What were the reasons for the failure of the three Round Table Conferences (1930-32)? (UPSC 2016, adapted)

    Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Briefly state that the three RTCs, held in London between 1930 and 1932, were convened by the British government to discuss constitutional reforms for India but ultimately failed to produce a consensus or meet Indian nationalist aspirations.
    • Reasons for Failure:
      • First RTC (1930): Its primary failure was the absence of the Indian National Congress, the largest political party, which was in the midst of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Without its participation, any decisions were seen as illegitimate in India.
      • Second RTC (1931):
        • British Intransigence: The British government, led by a National Government dominated by Conservatives, was unwilling to concede the dual demands of a responsible government at the Centre and Dominion Status, which was the core Congress demand.
        • The ‘Minorities’ Issue’: The British strategically magnified the differences among Indian delegates over the issue of communal representation. They encouraged demands for separate electorates from various groups (Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, and notably, the Depressed Classes led by Ambedkar), leading to a deadlock that the British used as a pretext to deny any real transfer of power. Gandhi, as the sole Congress representative, could not agree to a constitution that fragmented the Indian electorate.
      • Third RTC (1932): This was a mere formality with very low attendance. The Congress was again absent (having resumed CDM), and the British government was simply going through the motions to finalize its own proposals, which were later published in a White Paper and formed the basis of the GoI Act, 1935.
    • Overarching Cause of Failure: The fundamental reason was the conflicting objectives. Indian nationalists sought a genuine transfer of power and self-government, while the British aimed to introduce minor constitutional changes while retaining ultimate imperial control, using the ‘divide and rule’ strategy through communal representation to thwart a united Indian front.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the RTCs failed because they were not a sincere effort at negotiation but a political manoeuvre by the British to manage Indian demands without ceding real power. The lack of consensus among Indian groups, actively fostered by the British, provided the perfect excuse for this failure.

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