GS Notes

Modern Indian History Notes 34

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Gandhi’s Eleven-Point Demands (1930)

In January 1930, following the Lahore Congress resolution on Purna Swaraj (December 1929), Mahatma Gandhi presented a set of eleven demands to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin. These demands were a strategic move to gauge the government’s intentions and to frame the impending Civil Disobedience Movement around concrete, relatable grievances. Presented through his newspaper Young India, they were designed to unite various sections of Indian society. The demands were a mix of general interests, specific bourgeois needs, and crucial peasant grievances.

  • General Administrative & Financial Reforms:

    • Reduce military expenditure and salaries of civil servants by 50%: This addressed the “drain of wealth” critique, arguing that India’s administrative and military structure was excessively expensive and served imperial, not Indian, interests.
    • Total prohibition of intoxicants: This was a moral and social reform demand, appealing to Gandhi’s principles and also resonating with social reformers and conservative sections of society.
    • Release of all political prisoners: This was a direct challenge to the colonial state’s repressive apparatus.
    • Reforms in the Criminal Investigation Department (CID): The demand to place the CID under popular control aimed to curb its use as a tool for political surveillance and suppression of the nationalist movement.
    • Amendments to the Arms Act: To allow citizens to bear arms for self-defence, challenging the racial and political basis of the existing act which disarmed Indians.

  • Middle-Class/Bourgeoisie Issues:

    • Change the Rupee-Sterling exchange ratio to 1s 4d: The prevailing higher rate of 1s 6d was seen as detrimental to Indian exporters and beneficial to British importers. This demand was strongly supported by the Indian capitalist class, as articulated by bodies like the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI).
    • Introduce textile protection: A demand for tariffs on foreign cloth to protect the nascent Indian textile industry from competition, particularly from Lancashire.
    • Reserve coastal shipping for Indians: This aimed to break the monopoly of British shipping companies and foster the growth of an Indian merchant marine.

  • Peasant Issues:

    • Reduce land revenue by 50%: This was a direct appeal to the vast agrarian population suffering under high tax burdens, which were exacerbated by the onset of the Great Depression.
    • Abolish the salt tax and the government’s salt monopoly: This was the most ingenious demand. Salt was a universal commodity consumed by every Indian, rich or poor. The tax on it, though small in absolute terms, symbolised the exploitative nature of British rule. As historian Sumit Sarkar notes in Modern India, 1885-1947 (1983), the salt issue had a “unifying potential” that could cut across class and community divides.

Lord Irwin’s non-committal and negative response provided the immediate pretext for Gandhi to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.

The Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM), 1930-34

The CDM was a landmark movement in the Indian National Movement, marking a significant escalation from the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) of 1920-22.

  • Reasons for Launch:

    1. Political Disillusionment: The all-white Simon Commission (1927) was boycotted for its lack of Indian representation. The Nehru Report (1928), an Indian attempt at constitution-making, was rejected by the British. The Delhi Manifesto (1929), which sought assurances on Dominion Status as a basis for attending the Round Table Conference, was also rebuffed by Lord Irwin. Finally, the rejection of Gandhi’s 11-point demands closed the door for negotiations.
    2. Economic Crisis (The Great Depression): The global economic crash of 1929 had a catastrophic impact on the Indian agrarian economy. Prices of agricultural commodities plummeted, but the government refused to reduce its revenue demands. As noted by historian Bipan Chandra in India’s Struggle for Independence, this created an explosive situation in the countryside, making peasants receptive to a no-tax movement. Workers in urban areas also faced retrenchment and wage cuts.
    3. Strategic Choice of Salt: Gandhi’s choice of salt as the central issue was a masterstroke. It was a tangible, everyday grievance that did not have any communal overtones. The Muslim League could not argue that a campaign against the salt tax was a ‘Hindu’ demand, thus providing a broad, inclusive platform for the movement.

  • Plan and Implementation: The movement was planned in two distinct stages.

    • Stage 1 (Violation of Salt Laws and Boycott):
      • Dandi March (March 12 - April 6, 1930): Gandhi, along with 78 followers, marched over 240 miles from his Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad to the coastal village of Dandi. Upon reaching Dandi, he symbolically broke the salt law by manufacturing salt from seawater.
      • Nationwide Replication: The march inspired similar acts of civil disobedience across India. In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajagopalachari led a salt march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam. In Malabar, K. Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payyanur.
      • Dharasana Salt Works Satyagraha (May 1930): After Gandhi’s arrest on May 5, 1930, the planned peaceful ‘raid’ on the Dharasana salt pans in Gujarat was led by Abbas Tyabji and later by Sarojini Naidu and Gandhi’s son, Manilal Gandhi. The American journalist Webb Miller’s graphic accounts of the non-violent satyagrahis marching forward to be brutally beaten by the police were published worldwide, exposing the violent face of British imperialism.
      • Other Protests: In Assam, a powerful student protest developed against the Cunningham Circular, which compelled students and their guardians to furnish assurances of good behaviour. In the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s organisation of social reformers, the Khudai Khidmatgars (Servants of God), also known as ‘Red Shirts’, played a pivotal role.
    • Stage 2 (Broadening the Movement): After Gandhi’s arrest, the movement intensified and diversified.
      • No-Revenue and No-Chowkidari Tax Campaigns: Peasants in Ryotwari and Mahalwari areas refused to pay land revenue, while in Zamindari areas (like Bihar and Bengal), a campaign was launched against the chowkidari tax, a hated levy for village watchmen.
      • Violation of Forest Laws: In regions like the Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and Karnataka, tribal communities and peasants violated colonial forest laws which had restricted their traditional rights.

  • Impact of the Movement:

    • Positives:
      • Increased Radicalism: Unlike the NCM, which was withdrawn after the Chauri Chaura incident, Gandhi did not call off the CDM despite sporadic violence, showing a greater willingness to endure repression.
      • Mass Participation: The movement witnessed an unprecedented level of mass participation, far exceeding that of the NCM. The number of people imprisoned was about three times higher.
      • Capitalist Class Participation: For the first time, the Indian capitalist class, organized under bodies like FICCI, provided significant support, especially through boycotting imported goods. Foreign cloth imports fell by half. However, as analyzed by Aditya Mukherjee in Imperialism, Nationalism and the Making of the Indian Capitalist Class (2002), their support was tactical and they often pushed for compromise when their business interests were threatened.
      • Large-scale Women’s Participation: The CDM was remarkable for the massive participation of women from all walks of life, both in urban and rural areas. They picketed shops, manufactured salt, and faced police brutality. Gandhi’s moral and spiritual authority helped overcome social inhibitions against their public role. Leaders like Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay played a crucial role in persuading Gandhi to allow women to participate in the salt satyagraha.
    • Negatives and Limitations:
      • Low Muslim Participation: Except in the NWFP, Muslim participation was significantly lower than during the NCM. The alienation following the collapse of the Khilafat issue, communal riots in the late 1920s, and the Muslim League’s drift away from the Congress contributed to this.
      • Limited Worker Participation: The Communist Party of India (CPI), following the Comintern’s ultra-left line, instructed its members to boycott the ‘bourgeois’ CDM. This resulted in a general lack of organized worker participation, with notable exceptions like the violent uprising in Sholapur.
      • Alienation of Middle-Class Youth: A section of the youth was increasingly drawn to revolutionary terrorism, inspired by figures like Bhagat Singh, and were skeptical of the efficacy of non-violence.
      • Rising Violence: Incidents like the armoury raid in Chittagong by Surya Sen (April 1930), the uprising in Sholapur after Gandhi’s arrest, and the events in Peshawar where soldiers of the Garhwal Rifles refused to fire on unarmed protestors, indicated that the movement was not entirely non-violent. This rising violence was one of the factors that pushed Gandhi towards a truce.

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact and the Round Table Conferences

  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): As the movement continued and repression mounted, Viceroy Lord Irwin sought a truce. The pact stipulated:

    1. Discontinuation of the Civil Disobedience Movement by the Congress.
    2. Participation of the Congress in the Second Round Table Conference (RTC).
    3. Release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence.
    4. Withdrawal of all ordinances promulgated in connection with the CDM.
    5. Permission for peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops.
    6. Permission for people living near the coasts to collect or manufacture salt for personal consumption. The government, however, rejected two of Gandhi’s key demands: a public inquiry into police excesses, and the commutation of the death sentences of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru. The failure to save their lives led to immense criticism of Gandhi from the youth.

  • Karachi Session of Congress (March 1931): Held under the presidency of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, this special session endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. It is famous for two landmark resolutions:

    1. Resolution on Fundamental Rights: Guaranteed basic civil liberties to all citizens.
    2. Resolution on National Economic Programme: This was a major step, outlining a future socio-economic structure for independent India with a distinctly socialist orientation, including state ownership of key industries and services, and land reforms.

  • Second Round Table Conference (September-December 1931): Gandhi attended as the sole representative of the Congress. The conference failed primarily due to the British government’s insistence on using the minorities issue to stall any real transfer of power. All minority groups, including the Depressed Classes led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, demanded separate electorates. The British refused to concede the central Indian demand for freedom. Gandhi returned to India empty-handed.

The Communal Award and the Poona Pact

  • Communal Award (August 1932): In August 1932, the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, announced the ‘Communal Award’. It not only continued separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, and others but also extended them to the Depressed Classes (today’s Scheduled Castes).
  • Gandhi’s Response and the Poona Pact (September 1932): Gandhi, imprisoned in Yerawada jail, saw this as a move to permanently divide Hindu society and “vivisect” it. He began a fast unto death in protest. This created immense pressure on Dr. Ambedkar, who argued that separate electorates were essential for the political empowerment of the Depressed Classes. After intense negotiations involving leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, a compromise was reached.
    • The Poona Pact was signed between Dr. Ambedkar (on behalf of the Depressed Classes) and upper-caste Hindu leaders. It abandoned the idea of separate electorates for the Depressed Classes.
    • In return, the number of seats reserved for them in provincial legislatures was increased from 71 (in the Communal Award) to 147, and 18% of the seats in the Central Legislature were also reserved for them under the principle of a joint electorate.

Second Phase of CDM and Harijan Campaign (1932-34)

  • On his return from the 2nd RTC, Gandhi found that the new Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, had unleashed severe repression. The Congress was outlawed, and its leaders were arrested. Gandhi resumed the CDM in January 1932.
  • However, the second phase lacked the enthusiasm and momentum of the first. The masses were exhausted, and repression was severe.
  • Gandhi, now increasingly focused on the issue of untouchability, launched a concerted campaign from jail. He started the weekly journal ‘Harijan’ (1933), founded the All India Anti-Untouchability League (later renamed Harijan Sevak Sangh), and undertook a 21-day fast. After his release, he conducted a nationwide ‘Harijan Tour’ of over 20,000 km.
  • The movement was formally withdrawn in May 1934. The Harijan campaign had a mixed response. While it brought the issue of untouchability to the forefront of national politics, many upper-caste Hindus remained orthodox, and a growing section of the Depressed Classes, under Ambedkar’s influence, began to seek independent political solutions rather than social integration within the Hindu fold.

The Government of India Act, 1935

The Act was the culmination of a long process involving the Simon Commission Report, the Round Table Conferences, and the British government’s White Paper (1933).

  • Key Features:

    1. All-India Federation: The Act proposed a federation consisting of British Indian provinces and the Princely States. However, this never came into being as the required number of princely states did not agree to join. They feared a loss of their autonomy and the potential spread of democratic ideas into their territories.
    2. Dyarchy at the Centre: At the federal level, subjects were divided into ‘Reserved’ and ‘Transferred’. Reserved subjects (e.g., defence, foreign affairs, ecclesiastical affairs) were to be administered by the Governor-General with the help of appointed councillors, without responsibility to the legislature. Transferred subjects would be administered by ministers responsible to the legislature.
    3. Provincial Autonomy: This was the most significant part of the Act that was actually implemented. Dyarchy was abolished in the provinces, and the entire provincial administration was placed under ministers responsible to the provincial legislatures. However, the Governors retained extensive ‘special powers’ and discretionary authority.
    4. Bicameral Legislature: The Act provided for a bicameral federal legislature (Federal Assembly and Council of State) and also introduced bicameralism in six out of eleven provinces.
    5. Distribution of Powers: A three-fold division of legislative power was made between the centre and the provinces through three lists: Federal List, Provincial List, and Concurrent List. Residuary powers were vested in the Governor-General.
    6. Franchise and Representation: The franchise was extended, granting voting rights to about 10% of the population. The system of separate electorates for communal representation was retained and expanded.

  • Critique: Indian nationalists universally condemned the Act. The Congress called it a “charter of slavery.” Jawaharlal Nehru remarked it was “a machine with strong brakes but no engine.” While it introduced provincial autonomy, the real power remained with the British-appointed Governors and the Viceroy, who had overriding powers. The federal part was designed to be weak and to use the princes to counter the nationalists. Nevertheless, its provisions, particularly the federal structure and provincial autonomy, heavily influenced the final Constitution of independent India.

Prelims Pointers

  • Gandhi’s 11 Demands (Jan 1930): Presented in the newspaper Young India.
  • Dandi March: Started from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930; ended at Dandi on April 6, 1930.
  • Regional Salt Marches:
    • Tamil Nadu: C. Rajagopalachari (Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam).
    • Malabar: K. Kelappan (Calicut to Payyanur).
  • Dharasana Satyagraha (May 1930): Led by Sarojini Naidu, Abbas Tyabji, and Manilal Gandhi after Gandhi’s arrest.
  • Khudai Khidmatgars: Also known as ‘Red Shirts’; a non-violent movement in NWFP led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi).
  • Chittagong Armoury Raid (April 1930): Led by Surya Sen.
  • Cunningham Circular: A government order in Assam against which students protested during CDM.
  • Gandhi-Irwin Pact: Signed on March 5, 1931.
  • Karachi Congress Session (1931):
    1. Presided over by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
    2. Endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
    3. Passed resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Programme.
  • Second Round Table Conference (1931): Mahatma Gandhi was the sole representative of the Indian National Congress.
  • Communal Award (August 1932): Announced by British PM Ramsay MacDonald; granted separate electorates to Depressed Classes.
  • Poona Pact (September 1932):
    1. Signed between Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and leaders of the Congress.
    2. Accepted joint electorates for Depressed Classes.
    3. Increased reserved seats for them in provincial legislatures from 71 to 147.
  • Harijan Sevak Sangh: Founded by Mahatma Gandhi in 1932.
  • ‘Harijan’ newspaper: Started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1933.
  • Government of India Act, 1935:
    • Proposed an All-India Federation (never implemented).
    • Introduced Provincial Autonomy and abolished Dyarchy in provinces.
    • Introduced Dyarchy at the Centre.
    • Established a Federal Court (set up in 1937).
    • Created a three-fold division of powers: Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent Lists.
    • Vested residuary powers with the Governor-General.
    • Separated Burma from India.

Mains Insights

  1. Civil Disobedience Movement vs. Non-Cooperation Movement:

    • Objective: NCM’s goal was Swaraj within the British Empire, while CDM was launched after the declaration of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
    • Method: NCM’s core was non-cooperation (boycotting institutions), while CDM’s core was civil disobedience (deliberate violation of laws, starting with the salt law). This represented a clear radicalization of the nationalist struggle.
    • Participation: CDM saw a more diverse and widespread participation, especially from the business class and women. Peasant participation was also more militant due to the context of the Great Depression.
    • Muslim Participation: A key difference was the significantly lower Muslim participation in CDM compared to NCM, which had the Khilafat issue as a unifying factor.

  2. The Strategic Genius of the Salt Satyagraha:

    • Unifying Symbol: Salt was a universal commodity, and the tax on it affected everyone. It bypassed class, caste, and religious divides, making it an ideal symbol for a mass movement.
    • Moral High Ground: Breaking a law on a commodity essential for life cast the British government in the role of an oppressor and the satyagrahis as fighting for a basic human right.
    • Non-Violent Confrontation: It was a perfect issue for a non-violent campaign. The act of making salt was simple and could be replicated by anyone, anywhere on the coast, making state control difficult. The expected brutal state response to such a simple act would expose the violence inherent in colonialism, as it did at Dharasana.

  3. Gandhi-Ambedkar Debate on Political Representation:

    • Ambedkar’s Position: Dr. Ambedkar believed that social reform and the goodwill of caste Hindus were insufficient to uplift the Depressed Classes. He argued that only through political power, secured via separate electorates, could they protect their interests and achieve true emancipation. For him, political rights preceded social reform.
    • Gandhi’s Position: Gandhi feared that separate electorates would politically separate the Depressed Classes from the Hindu community forever, making the abolition of untouchability impossible. He believed the solution lay in social reform and a change of heart among caste Hindus, for which he was willing to offer generous reservations under a joint electorate.
    • Historiographical View: The Poona Pact is viewed differently by historians. Some see it as a pragmatic compromise that prevented a major split in the anti-colonial front. Others, particularly Dalit scholars, view it as a moment where the independent political voice of the Depressed Classes was co-opted by the nationalist mainstream, delaying their political empowerment.

  4. Government of India Act, 1935: A Paradoxical Legislation:

    • ‘Charter of Slavery’: Nationalists rejected it because it withheld real power. The Governor-General and Governors retained vast discretionary powers (‘safeguards’), the federal structure was skewed in favour of unelected princely states, and the limited franchise kept the masses out of power.
    • Foundation of the Indian Constitution: Despite its rejection, the Act became a crucial blueprint for the Constitution of independent India. The federal scheme, the three legislative lists, the office of the Governor, provincial autonomy, and the parliamentary system were all adapted from the 1935 Act. This highlights the complex legacy of colonial constitutional reforms—they were designed to perpetuate rule but ended up providing the institutional framework for post-colonial governance.

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