GS Notes

1.2.4 - Post Independence India Notes 05

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Elaborate Notes

Continuation of Tashkent Agreement

  • Context of the Ceasefire (1965): The India-Pakistan War of 1965 was a large-scale conflict that saw both sides achieve some military objectives but ended in a stalemate. India had made significant territorial gains, notably capturing the strategic Haji Pir Pass in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, which was a key infiltration route for militants.
  • Military Assessment and Intelligence Failure: Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, buoyed by the military’s performance, sought an assessment from the then Chief of Army Staff, General J.N. Chaudhuri, on the feasibility of a decisive, all-out victory. The feedback, as noted by historians like Ramachandra Guha in India After Gandhi (2007), was that Indian forces were facing a critical shortage of arms and ammunition. This assessment, later debated for its accuracy, played a crucial role in India’s decision to accept the UN-sponsored ceasefire. This situation highlighted a significant intelligence and logistical failure in assessing the nation’s war-fighting capacity.
  • The Tashkent Declaration (January 10, 1966):
    • Mediated by Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin in Tashkent (then in the Uzbek SSR, Soviet Union), the agreement was signed by Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan.
    • Its primary clause was the restoration of the status quo ante bellum, meaning both nations agreed to withdraw their forces to the positions they held before the war began on August 5, 1965.
    • Consequently, India had to return the hard-won Haji Pir Pass to Pakistan, a decision that was met with significant criticism domestically from both the public and opposition parties like the Jana Sangh.
  • Geopolitical Pressures:
    • Soviet Influence: The USSR was emerging as a key ally for India. Its support, including the use of its veto power in the UN Security Council on the Kashmir issue, was indispensable. As the mediator, the USSR strongly pushed for the restoration of pre-war boundaries to de-escalate the situation in its geopolitical backyard. India could not afford to antagonize its most powerful diplomatic ally.
    • US and Chinese Angles: The United States, though officially neutral, had tilted towards Pakistan during this period. There was a palpable fear in New Delhi that a prolonged conflict could invite deeper American intervention or, worse, a coordinated action by Pakistan and China (which had defeated India in 1962). Such a scenario would have been catastrophic for India’s economy and security.
  • Rise in Shastri’s Stature: Despite the controversial return of territory, the war significantly enhanced Lal Bahadur Shastri’s image from a seemingly mild successor to Nehru to a resolute and strong wartime leader.
    • Allahabad Speech: His speeches during the war were crucial for boosting national morale. In a famous public address in Allahabad, he directly countered Ayub Khan’s boastful claim of “marching to Delhi” with a defiant and witty retort that India would go to Lahore to “pay respects” to him.
    • “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan”: This slogan, meaning “Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer,” was coined by Shastri during a public gathering at Ramlila Maidan, Delhi. It was a masterful political communication tool that linked the security of the nation (Jawan) with its food security (Kisan), galvanizing the entire country.

Agrarian Crisis and L. B. Shastri

  • Inherited Economic Challenges: Shastri’s premiership began amidst a severe agrarian crisis, marked by consecutive droughts and food shortages. India was heavily dependent on food aid from the United States under the Public Law 480 (PL-480) or “Food for Peace” program, initiated in 1954. The grains supplied were often of inferior quality (e.g., milo) and created a dependency that could be used for political leverage.
  • US Pressure and Diversion of Resources: The 1965 war exacerbated the crisis. The massive war expenditure diverted funds from development and agriculture. In a punitive measure to pressure India into accepting a ceasefire and to show disapproval of its non-aligned foreign policy, the Johnson administration in the US deliberately delayed and restricted PL-480 wheat shipments. This “ship-to-mouth” existence, as it was called, was a national humiliation and a stark lesson in the dangers of food dependency.
  • Shastri’s Response and Vision:
    • Faced with this crisis, Shastri made a powerful appeal for national self-sufficiency and food security. He used the All India Radio to urge citizens to observe a fast once a week (initially on Mondays) to conserve food.
    • He promoted the idea of “kitchen gardens,” encouraging families to grow vegetables in their backyards to supplement their food needs. He led by example, with his own family at the Prime Ministerial residence in Delhi being the first to implement the idea.
    • These actions, coupled with the “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan” slogan, laid the foundational political and social narrative for the Green Revolution. As noted by political scientist C. P. Bhambhri, Shastri’s policies created a national consensus that food security was non-negotiable, a sentiment his successor, Indira Gandhi, would build upon with technological and policy interventions.

The Indira Gandhi Era

  • Succession Struggle (1966): Following Lal Bahadur Shastri’s sudden death in Tashkent on January 11, 1966, a leadership vacuum emerged.
    • The acting Prime Minister, Gulzari Lal Nanda, and the senior leader Morarji Desai were the primary contenders. Desai was seen as a right-leaning, rigid, and overly ambitious figure by the party’s powerful inner circle.
    • The “Syndicate”: This was an informal but immensely powerful group of senior Congress leaders who controlled the party machinery. It included figures like K. Kamaraj (Congress President), S. Nijalingappa, N. Sanjiva Reddy, and Atulya Ghosh. They were the “kingmakers.”
    • Kamaraj’s Role: The Syndicate’s leader, K. Kamaraj, was a formidable figure but recognized his own limitations, particularly his lack of fluency in Hindi and English, which would have hampered his acceptance as a national leader. He sought a candidate who would be pliable and dependent on the Syndicate for guidance.
    • Indira Gandhi’s Selection: Indira Gandhi, then Minister of Information and Broadcasting, was chosen. The Syndicate perceived her as politically inexperienced and believed that as a woman and Nehru’s daughter (evoking public sympathy), she would be a “Gungi Gudiya” (dumb doll), easily controlled from behind the scenes. She defeated Morarji Desai in the Congress Parliamentary Party election to become India’s third Prime Minister.

The Congress Split

  • Early Signs of Conflict (1966-67):
    • Contrary to the Syndicate’s expectations, Indira Gandhi began asserting her authority. A key early decision was the devaluation of the Indian Rupee by 36.5% in June 1966.
    • This was done under immense pressure from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which had made it a precondition for further aid to tackle India’s severe Balance of Payments (BOP) crisis.
    • The decision backfired economically in the short term. As a net importer of capital goods, fuel, and raw materials, the cost of imports surged, leading to inflation. The expected boost to exports did not materialize immediately as India’s industrial base was not strong enough to capitalize on the devaluation.
    • Politically, the move was disastrous. It was criticized heavily by both the Left and the Right, and the Syndicate felt undermined as they were not adequately consulted. This event marked the first major rift between the Prime Minister and the party bosses.

Ideological Conflicts between Indira Gandhi and the Syndicate

The conflict was not merely personal but also deeply ideological, reflecting a classic left-right divide within the Congress party.

Indira Gandhi’s Faction (Later Congress-R)Syndicate (Later Congress-O)
Ideology: Advocated a populist, pro-poor, and left-of-centre socialist agenda.Represented the conservative, pro-business, right-of-centre wing of the party.
Economic Policy: Pushed for a strong welfare state, nationalization of key sectors like banks and insurance, and a dominant public sector.Favored a stronger private sector, opposed nationalization, and believed in limited state intervention in the economy.
Planning: Strongly supported the Five-Year Plan model for a state-led planned economy.Were skeptical of centralized planning and advocated for market-oriented policies, with some members even suggesting the abolition of the Planning Commission.
Agrarian Policy: Supported radical land reforms, including strict implementation of land ceiling laws to redistribute land to the landless poor.Were largely pro-landed class and status quoist, resisting aggressive land redistribution that would alienate their traditional support base.
Foreign Policy: Favored closer ties with the Soviet Union and the socialist bloc.Were inclined towards better relations with the United States and the Western bloc.

  • The 1967 General Elections: This election was a watershed moment. An anti-Congress wave, fueled by economic distress, food shortages, inflation, and growing disenchantment, swept the country.

    • For the first time since independence, the Congress party lost its majority in eight states (including Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Punjab), giving rise to an era of coalition governments and regional parties.
    • At the Centre, Congress managed to secure a thin majority (283 out of 520 seats). This weak mandate further emboldened Indira Gandhi’s rivals within the party but also weakened the Syndicate, as many of their loyalists lost the election.

  • The Final Trigger: The Presidential Election of 1969:

    • The death of President Dr. Zakir Hussain in May 1969 created a vacancy for the nation’s highest office.
    • The Syndicate, seeking to reassert its control, nominated Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, the then Speaker of the Lok Sabha, as the official Congress candidate, without consulting the Prime Minister.
    • In a direct challenge, Indira Gandhi encouraged the Vice President, V. V. Giri, to contest as an independent candidate. She did not openly oppose Reddy but called for a “conscience vote,” effectively asking Congress MPs and MLAs to vote for whomever they deemed fit, undermining the party whip.
    • In a closely fought election, V. V. Giri won. This was a public humiliation for the Syndicate and a massive political victory for Indira Gandhi, demonstrating her control over the elected representatives.
    • In November 1969, the enraged Congress President S. Nijalingappa expelled Indira Gandhi from the party for indiscipline. This formalized the split. The Syndicate-led faction became the Congress (Organisation) or Congress (O), while Indira Gandhi’s faction, which had the majority of MPs, became the Congress (Requisitionists) or Congress (R). She continued as Prime Minister with the support of leftist parties like the CPI.

Elections, 1971

  • Reasons for a Mid-Term Poll: Indira Gandhi’s government, after the 1969 split, was a minority government dependent on outside support. This constrained her ability to push her radical economic agenda.
    • Judicial Hurdles: Her key policies faced legal challenges. The Supreme Court struck down the nationalization of 14 major commercial banks in the R.C. Cooper vs. Union of India case (1970) on grounds of inadequate compensation. Her attempt to abolish Privy Purses (special allowances paid to former rulers of princely states) through an ordinance was also struck down by the Supreme Court.
    • To overcome these hurdles and gain a decisive mandate for her policies, she dissolved the Lok Sabha in December 1970 and called for fresh elections. This set the stage for future constitutional amendments like the 24th and 25th, designed to establish parliamentary supremacy over the judiciary.
  • The Campaign: The election was a direct contest between two opposing ideologies.
    • A “Grand Alliance” (Mahagathbandhan) of opposition parties, including Congress (O), Jana Sangh, and Swatantra Party, was formed. Their singular campaign slogan was “Indira Hatao” (Remove Indira).
    • Indira Gandhi responded with a powerful and resonant slogan: “Garibi Hatao” (Eradicate Poverty). This simple message connected directly with the masses and positioned her as a champion of the poor against the vested interests of the elite. The jibe from socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia, who had earlier called her a “Gungi Gudiya,” now seemed entirely misplaced.
  • The Verdict: In March 1971, Indira Gandhi and her Congress (R) swept the polls, winning 352 out of 518 seats, a two-thirds majority. The Grand Alliance was decimated. This victory consolidated her power absolutely and gave her the mandate to implement her socialist programs and amend the Constitution.

Bangladesh Liberation War, 1971: The Background

  • Deep-Rooted Divisions: The creation of Pakistan in 1947 had yoked together two geographically and culturally distinct territories, West Pakistan and East Pakistan (modern-day Bangladesh).
    • Cultural & Linguistic Differences: East Pakistan, with its Bengali language and rich literary and cultural traditions (rooted in figures like Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam), felt a greater affinity with West Bengal (India) than with the Punjabi and Pashtun-dominated West Pakistan.
    • Language Movement: The attempt by the Pakistani state, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, to impose Urdu as the sole national language was fiercely resisted in East Pakistan. The killing of student protestors in Dhaka on February 21, 1952, demanding official status for Bengali, is a foundational event in Bangladeshi nationalism (now commemorated as International Mother Language Day).
    • Political and Military Domination: The state apparatus, bureaucracy, and military were overwhelmingly dominated by West Pakistanis. Bengalis were systematically excluded from positions of power.
  • Economic Exploitation:
    • East Pakistan was economically marginalized despite being the majority province by population. It was a major earner of foreign exchange through the export of jute.
    • However, the revenue generated was disproportionately invested in the industrialization and development of West Pakistan, leading to a widespread feeling of being treated as an internal colony. The disparity in per capita income and development indicators between the two wings grew starkly over the years.
  • Trigger Events:
    • Bhola Cyclone (November 1970): This was one of the deadliest tropical cyclones ever recorded, killing an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people in East Pakistan. The response from the central government in West Pakistan was widely seen as slow, inept, and callous, reinforcing the sense of alienation and anger among the Bengali populace.
    • 1970 General Elections: These were the first free and fair general elections held in Pakistan. The Awami League, led by the charismatic Bengali nationalist Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, campaigned on a “Six-Point Program” demanding significant regional autonomy. The results were a political earthquake: the Awami League won 160 out of 162 seats in East Pakistan, giving it an absolute majority in the 300-seat National Assembly.
  • Refusal to Transfer Power and Repression:
    • The West Pakistani establishment, led by military dictator General Yahya Khan and the leader of the largest party in the West, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (of the Pakistan Peoples Party), refused to accept the election verdict and convene the National Assembly.
    • As peaceful protests and a Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gained momentum, the Pakistani military prepared for a brutal crackdown.
    • Operation Searchlight: On the night of March 25, 1971, the Pakistani army launched a genocidal campaign in Dhaka. They targeted students, intellectuals, academics, and the Hindu minority. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested. This act of unprecedented brutality marked the beginning of the Bangladesh Liberation War.
  • The Refugee Crisis in India: The genocide triggered a massive exodus of refugees into India. An estimated 10 million people, both Hindus and Muslims, fled across the border into West Bengal, Tripura, Assam, and Meghalaya. This created an unbearable economic, social, and demographic strain on India, threatening its internal stability and forcing Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and her government, including Army Chief General Sam Manekshaw, to contemplate military intervention.

Prelims Pointers

  • Tashkent Agreement (10 Jan 1966): Signed between India’s PM Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s President Ayub Khan.
  • Mediator of Tashkent Agreement: Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin.
  • Key Outcome of Tashkent: Restoration of status quo ante bellum; India returned the Haji Pir Pass to Pakistan.
  • Slogan “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan”: Given by Lal Bahadur Shastri.
  • PL-480 (Public Law 480): A food aid program of the USA, through which India imported food grains.
  • “Syndicate”: A group of powerful, senior Congress leaders including K. Kamaraj, S. Nijalingappa, and N. Sanjiva Reddy.
  • Devaluation of Rupee (1966): Undertaken by Indira Gandhi’s government under pressure from the IMF and World Bank.
  • 1967 General Elections: Congress lost power in 8 states for the first time, marking the beginning of the era of coalition politics.
  • Trigger for Congress Split (1969): The Presidential election following the death of Dr. Zakir Hussain.
  • Syndicate’s Presidential Candidate (1969): Neelam Sanjiva Reddy.
  • Indira Gandhi’s supported candidate (1969): V. V. Giri (who won).
  • Congress Factions after 1969 Split: Congress (O) led by the Syndicate and Congress (R) led by Indira Gandhi.
  • Slogan “Garibi Hatao”: Given by Indira Gandhi for the 1971 Lok Sabha elections.
  • Slogan “Indira Hatao”: Used by the “Grand Alliance” of opposition parties in the 1971 elections.
  • R.C. Cooper vs. Union of India (1970): Supreme Court case that struck down the nationalization of 14 banks.
  • Privy Purses: Special payments guaranteed to rulers of erstwhile princely states, which Indira Gandhi sought to abolish.
  • Leader of Awami League (East Pakistan): Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
  • Operation Searchlight (25 March 1971): Code name for the genocidal crackdown by the Pakistan Army in East Pakistan.
  • Bhola Cyclone (1970): A natural disaster in East Pakistan that exposed the West Pakistani government’s neglect and became a trigger for the liberation movement.

Mains Insights

  • Tashkent Agreement: A Diplomatic Necessity or a Strategic Compromise?
    • Cause-Effect: The 1965 war, while a military and morale victory, severely strained India’s economy and depleted its arsenal. The Tashkent Agreement was a direct consequence of this strain, coupled with intense international pressure from both the USSR and the USA. It demonstrated the limitations of military action without robust economic and logistical backing.
    • Historiographical Debate: The return of Haji Pir Pass is debated. Critics view it as a surrender of a crucial strategic advantage on the diplomatic table, nullifying the sacrifices of the soldiers. Proponents argue it was a pragmatic decision by Shastri to secure peace, avoid a two-front war (with China), and solidify India’s relationship with the USSR, which was vital for long-term security.
  • The Congress Split of 1969: An Ideological Realignment or a Power Struggle?
    • Analytical Perspective: The split was a culmination of both a personal power struggle between Indira Gandhi and the Syndicate and a genuine ideological conflict. Indira Gandhi skillfully framed her fight for political supremacy as a battle for a pro-poor, socialist India against the pro-capitalist, status-quoist old guard.
    • Consequences on Indian Polity:
      1. Centralization of Power: The split led to the decline of intra-party democracy within Congress. Power became highly centralized in the hands of Indira Gandhi, replacing the collective leadership model of the Nehru-Shastri era.
      2. Populism as a Political Tool: The success of the “Garibi Hatao” slogan institutionalized populist rhetoric in Indian politics. Policies were increasingly framed to appeal directly to the masses, often bypassing institutional checks and balances.
      3. End of the “Congress System”: Political scientist Rajni Kothari described the pre-1967 Congress as a broad, consensus-building platform or “system.” The 1969 split destroyed this, turning the Congress into a more ideologically defined but less accommodating party, leading to a more competitive and fragmented party system in the long run.
  • Indira Gandhi’s Economic Policies: Conviction or Compulsion?
    • Cause-Effect: Her “left turn” (bank nationalization, abolition of privy purses) was driven by multiple factors. It was a political masterstroke to outmaneuver the Syndicate and build a new political constituency among the poor, minorities, and scheduled castes. It was also a response to the economic crises of the 1960s and a reflection of the then-dominant global thinking favouring state-led development.
    • Debate: Was this genuine socialism or “political populism”? Critics argue that these moves were aimed at consolidating power and did little to fundamentally alter the structure of poverty. Supporters contend that they were necessary interventions to steer national resources towards priority sectors and reduce the concentration of economic power.
  • The Bangladesh Crisis: Inevitability and India’s Role:
    • Structural Causes: The crisis was not a sudden event but the result of decades of systematic political, economic, and cultural discrimination against East Pakistan. The 1970 election and the subsequent refusal to transfer power were merely the final triggers.
    • India’s Dilemma: For India, the crisis was not just a humanitarian issue but a major strategic and security challenge. The influx of 10 million refugees was an act of “demographic aggression” by Pakistan. Intervention was a high-risk gamble but became necessary to relieve the refugee burden, ensure regional stability, and prevent the radicalization of the Bengali resistance movement, which could have had spillover effects in India’s own northeast.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. The “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan” slogan was given by: (UPSC CSE 2017, similar question patterns) (a) Jawaharlal Nehru (b) Lal Bahadur Shastri (c) Indira Gandhi (d) Atal Bihari Vajpayee Answer: (b) Lal Bahadur Shastri

  2. Consider the following statements regarding the Tashkent Agreement: (UPSC CSE 2021, adapted)

    1. It was signed after the India-Pakistan War of 1971.
    2. It was mediated by the United States of America.
    3. As per the agreement, India returned the Haji Pir Pass to Pakistan. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (a) 3 only (Statement 1 is incorrect, it was after the 1965 war. Statement 2 is incorrect, it was mediated by the USSR).

  3. The slogan ‘Garibi Hatao’ was incorporated in which Five Year Plan and given during which election? (UPSC CSE 2018, similar theme) (a) Fourth Plan, 1967 election (b) Fifth Plan, 1971 election (c) Sixth Plan, 1977 election (d) Third Plan, 1962 election Answer: (b) Fifth Plan, 1971 election (The slogan was given for the 1971 election, and the theme of ‘Garibi Hatao’ was the central plank of the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79)).

  4. The split in the Indian National Congress in 1969 was precipitated by: (UPSC CSE 2019, adapted) (a) The devaluation of the rupee in 1966. (b) The results of the 1967 general elections. (c) The conflict over the nomination of the party’s candidate for the Presidency of India. (d) The nationalization of 14 major commercial banks. Answer: (c) The conflict over the nomination of the party’s candidate for the Presidency of India. (While others were contributing factors, the presidential election was the immediate trigger).

  5. Which one of the following was a major cause of discontent in East Pakistan leading to the Bangladesh Liberation War? (UPSC CSE 2020, adapted) (a) Imposition of Martial Law by General Ayub Khan. (b) Refusal by the West Pakistani establishment to honour the results of the 1970 general elections. (c) The signing of the Tashkent agreement. (d) Creation of the state of Pakistan based on religion. Answer: (b) Refusal by the West Pakistani establishment to honour the results of the 1970 general elections. (This was the most immediate and significant political cause).

Mains

  1. Discuss the political and economic factors that led to the split in the Congress Party in 1969. What were its long-term implications for the Indian political system? (2017, similar theme) Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Briefly state that the 1969 split was a watershed moment, marking the end of the old ‘Congress System’ and the rise of a new, centralized, and populist political culture under Indira Gandhi.
    • Political Factors:
      • Power Struggle: The personal tussle for supremacy between Indira Gandhi and the ‘Syndicate’ (Kamaraj, Nijalingappa etc.) who had initially installed her as PM.
      • Assertion of Authority: Indira Gandhi’s independent decisions like the 1966 rupee devaluation against the Syndicate’s wishes.
      • 1967 Elections: The poor performance weakened the Syndicate’s hold and emboldened Indira Gandhi.
      • Immediate Trigger: The 1969 Presidential election, where Indira Gandhi backed V.V. Giri against the official party candidate N. Sanjiva Reddy, leading to her expulsion.
    • Economic Factors (Ideological Conflict):
      • Left vs. Right: Indira Gandhi’s adoption of a populist, left-of-centre agenda (Ten-Point Programme) to build a direct connection with the masses.
      • Key Policies: Her push for bank nationalization, abolition of privy purses, and land reforms was ideologically opposed by the pro-business Syndicate.
      • Slogan: Framing the conflict as a battle for ‘Garibi Hatao’ against the vested interests of the old guard.
    • Long-term Implications:
      • Centralization of Power: Shift from a federal, consensus-based party to a highly centralized one under a supreme leader.
      • Decline of Intra-Party Democracy: The culture of dissent and debate within Congress diminished significantly.
      • Rise of Populism: The success of the ‘Garibi Hatao’ slogan made populist appeals a dominant feature of Indian politics.
      • Weakening of Institutions: Led to friction with the judiciary and a tendency to use constitutional amendments to assert parliamentary supremacy.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the split was both a power struggle and an ideological realignment, which fundamentally reshaped the nature of the Congress party and Indian politics for decades to come.

  2. Lal Bahadur Shastri’s brief tenure as Prime Minister was a period of significant challenges and remarkable leadership. Elaborate. (2018, adapted) Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Mention that Shastri’s premiership (1964-66), though short, was pivotal in navigating India through major domestic and foreign policy crises, proving his mettle as a leader.
    • Challenges Faced:
      • Succession: Stepping into the shoes of a towering figure like Jawaharlal Nehru and managing the ambitions of senior leaders like Morarji Desai.
      • Food Crisis: Inherited a severe agrarian crisis due to droughts, leading to heavy dependence on US PL-480 food aid.
      • Language Agitation: Faced violent anti-Hindi agitations in Tamil Nadu in 1965, which threatened national unity.
      • Pakistan’s Aggression: Had to lead the country through the 1965 war with Pakistan.
    • Demonstration of Remarkable Leadership:
      • Domestic Front: Coined the slogan “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan” to unite the nation, linking national security with food security. His appeal for weekly fasting and promotion of kitchen gardens was a moral and symbolic leadership initiative. He handled the language crisis with tact, assuring that English would continue as an associate official language.
      • Foreign Policy and Defence: Led the nation with resolve during the 1965 war, boosting national morale. His military leadership allowed Indian forces to reach the outskirts of Lahore. He signed the Tashkent Agreement under diplomatic pressure, prioritizing peace despite domestic criticism.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that Shastri successfully steered India through multiple crises, demonstrating a leadership style that was humble yet firm, and laid the groundwork for future policies like the Green Revolution and a more assertive foreign policy.

  3. The 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War was not a sudden event but the culmination of years of political, economic, and cultural subjugation of East Pakistan. Analyze the statement. (2022, adapted) Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Agree with the statement, asserting that the 1971 war was the inevitable outcome of the structural inequalities and discriminatory state policies of Pakistan towards its eastern wing since 1947.
    • Cultural Subjugation:
      • Language Movement: The attempt to impose Urdu and the violent suppression of the Bengali language movement in 1952 sowed the first seeds of secession.
      • Cultural Alienation: The West Pakistani elite viewed Bengali culture with disdain, creating a deep cultural chasm.
    • Economic Subjugation:
      • “Internal Colonialism”: Detail how East Pakistan’s foreign exchange earnings (from jute) were used to fund the industrial development of West Pakistan.
      • Development Disparity: Highlight the growing gap in per capita income, infrastructure, and public investment between the two wings.
    • Political Subjugation:
      • Domination by West: The military, bureaucracy, and political leadership were overwhelmingly dominated by West Pakistanis.
      • Denial of Democratic Rights: Repeated imposition of martial law and suppression of democratic aspirations.
      • Final Trigger: The refusal of the Yahya Khan-Bhutto combine to honour the 1970 election results, where Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s Awami League won a clear majority.
      • Operation Searchlight: The subsequent genocide launched on March 25, 1971, left no room for a political solution and made armed liberation the only option.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that the war was a tragic but logical consequence of the failure to build a pluralistic and equitable nation-state, where political, economic, and cultural grievances were systematically ignored and violently suppressed.

  4. Analyze the factors that contributed to the rise of Indira Gandhi as the undisputed leader of the Congress Party and the country by 1971. (GS Paper I, general theme) Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Explain that Indira Gandhi’s rise was a product of her sharp political acumen, strategic risk-taking, and her ability to connect with the masses, transforming her initial image of a “Gungi Gudiya” into that of a formidable leader.
    • Initial Underestimation: The Syndicate chose her thinking she would be pliable, which gave her the initial entry and time to consolidate her position.
    • Outmaneuvering the Syndicate:
      • Skillfully turning the power struggle into an ideological battle between socialism and conservatism.
      • The bold moves of bank nationalization and abolition of privy purses projected her as a pro-poor leader.
      • Winning the 1969 Presidential election battle was a masterstroke that demonstrated her political control.
    • Populist Connect:
      • The slogan “Garibi Hatao” was a powerful tool that resonated with the poor and marginalized, creating a vast, cross-caste, cross-regional vote bank loyal to her personally.
      • She successfully portrayed the opposition ‘Grand Alliance’ as a conglomerate of rich, reactionary forces.
    • Decisive Mandate of 1971 Elections: The landslide victory with a two-thirds majority gave her an undisputed mandate and silenced all her critics within and outside the party.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that Indira Gandhi’s rise was due to a combination of her own political genius in converting challenges into opportunities, the miscalculations of her rivals, and her creation of a powerful populist narrative that established a direct charismatic link with the Indian electorate.

  5. Critically examine the decision to devalue the Indian Rupee in 1966. What were its immediate economic consequences and long-term political fallout? (GS Paper III/I, interdisciplinary theme) Answer Outline:

    • Introduction: Contextualize the 1966 devaluation as a difficult policy choice made by the nascent Indira Gandhi government amidst a severe Balance of Payments crisis, drought, and immense pressure from international financial institutions.
    • Rationale for Devaluation:
      • External Pressure: The World Bank and IMF made it a precondition for a $900 million aid package.
      • Economic Theory: The aim was to make exports cheaper and imports more expensive, thereby boosting export earnings and correcting the trade deficit.
      • Overvalued Rupee: The official exchange rate was seen as artificially high, hurting export competitiveness.
    • Immediate Economic Consequences (Largely Negative):
      • Failure to Boost Exports: India’s export basket (jute, tea) had inelastic demand, and the industrial base was too weak to increase production quickly.
      • Inflation: As India was a net importer of capital goods, machinery, and oil, the cost of these essential imports surged, leading to cost-push inflation.
      • Increased Debt Burden: The value of India’s foreign debt in rupee terms increased overnight.
    • Long-term Political Fallout:
      • Political Blunder: The decision was immensely unpopular and was used by opposition parties to brand the government as having succumbed to foreign pressure. It contributed significantly to the anti-Congress sentiment in the 1967 elections.
      • Rift with Syndicate: It was a major point of friction between Indira Gandhi and the old guard, who felt bypassed. This sowed the seeds of the 1969 split.
      • Shift in Policy: The negative experience with devaluation pushed Indira Gandhi towards a more inward-looking, self-reliant, and socialist economic policy in the subsequent years to reduce dependency on foreign aid and institutions.
    • Conclusion: Critically conclude that while theoretically sound, the 1966 devaluation was ill-timed and politically damaging. It failed to achieve its immediate economic objectives due to structural weaknesses in the economy and had a significant negative political fallout that shaped Indira Gandhi’s subsequent political and economic trajectory.

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