19. Science and Technology Notes 06

Elaborate Notes

Three-staged Nuclear Programme of India

India’s three-stage nuclear power programme is a strategic plan formulated to secure the country’s long-term energy independence, using its vast thorium reserves.

• Genesis and Vision: The programme was conceived by Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha, the architect of India’s atomic energy programme, in the 1950s. At the first UN Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva in 1955, Bhabha presented this unique sequential strategy. His foresight was rooted in a realistic assessment of India’s nuclear resource profile: modest reserves of uranium but one of the world’s largest reserves of thorium. The primary objective was to achieve self-sufficiency (Aatmanirbharta) in nuclear fuel cycles, thereby insulating India from geopolitical pressures related to fuel supply.

• Resource Rationale: India possesses limited reserves of uranium, estimated to be around 1-2% of the global total, primarily found in Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Tummalapalle (Andhra Pradesh), and parts of Meghalaya. In stark contrast, India holds approximately 25% of the world’s thorium reserves, largely in the form of monazite in the beach sands of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha. Thorium-232 itself is not a fissile material (it cannot sustain a chain reaction), but it is a ‘fertile’ material, meaning it can be transmuted into a fissile isotope, Uranium-233, upon absorbing a neutron.

• Stage 1: Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)

  • Technology: This stage employs PHWRs, which use natural uranium (containing 0.7% fissile U-235) as fuel. Heavy water (D₂O) is used as both the moderator and the coolant. Heavy water is an excellent moderator because it effectively slows down the fast neutrons produced during fission without absorbing them, which is crucial for sustaining a chain reaction with unenriched natural uranium.
  • Process: The fission of U-235 atoms releases energy. Simultaneously, the non-fissile U-238 atoms (comprising over 99% of natural uranium) absorb some of these neutrons. This process transmutes U-238 into fissile Plutonium-239 (Pu-239) through a series of beta decays (U-238 + n → U-239 → Np-239 → Pu-239).
  • Implementation: India has successfully established this stage with numerous operational PHWRs at sites like Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kakrapar (Gujarat), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), and Narora (Uttar Pradesh). The spent fuel from these reactors, rich in Pu-239, is reprocessed to serve as the fuel for the second stage.

• Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)

  • Technology: This stage is the critical link to utilizing thorium. It involves FBRs, which use a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel composed of Pu-239 (recovered from Stage 1) and natural uranium. A blanket of thorium-232 and depleted uranium surrounds the reactor core.
  • Process: FBRs use ‘fast’ (unmoderated) neutrons to sustain the fission of Pu-239. These fast neutrons are more efficient at converting fertile materials into fissile ones. The reactor is termed a ‘breeder’ because it produces more fissile material than it consumes. While Pu-239 undergoes fission to produce energy, the neutrons released are absorbed by the thorium-232 in the blanket, transmuting it into fissile U-233 (Th-232 + n → Th-233 → Pa-233 → U-233).
  • Coolant: Liquid sodium is used as the coolant due to its high thermal conductivity and high boiling point, which allows the reactor to operate at high temperatures and atmospheric pressure, leading to greater thermal efficiency. However, sodium is highly reactive with air and water, posing significant engineering and safety challenges.
  • Implementation: India’s progress in this stage is centered at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam. After the successful operation of a small-scale Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR), India has been constructing a 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR), which has faced significant delays.

• Stage 3: Thorium-Based Reactors

  • Technology: The final stage envisions the use of self-sustaining advanced nuclear reactor systems, primarily the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR). These reactors will use a fuel mix of U-233 (recovered from Stage 2) and thorium-232.
  • Process: The reactor would be a ‘thermal breeder’ reactor. The initial U-233 core undergoes fission, producing neutrons that are absorbed by the surrounding thorium, which then converts into more U-233. This creates a self-sustaining fuel cycle where thorium is continuously converted and used as fuel.
  • Potential: This stage is projected to be the mainstay of India’s nuclear power programme, capable of providing a vast and sustainable energy supply for centuries. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) estimates that once this stage is operational, it can generate over 100 Gigawatts of electricity for 400-500 years, making India truly energy independent. This stage, however, remains largely in the design and experimental phase, contingent on the large-scale success and fuel generation from Stage 2.

Challenges in the Three-Stage Nuclear Programme

• Technological and Implementation Hurdles:

  • Stage 2 Delays: The cornerstone of the programme, the PFBR at Kalpakkam, which was scheduled to be commissioned around 2010, is still not operational due to complex engineering challenges, particularly in manufacturing and qualifying large, critical components and handling the highly reactive liquid sodium coolant.
  • Spent Fuel Reprocessing: Reprocessing spent fuel from Stage 1 to extract plutonium is a technologically sophisticated, expensive, and potentially hazardous process. While India has mastered this technology on a certain scale at facilities in Trombay, Tarapur, and Kalpakkam, scaling it up to meet the demands of a large FBR fleet is a significant challenge.

• International Relations and Fuel Supply:

  • NSG Membership: India conducted its first nuclear test (“Smiling Buddha”) in 1974, leading to the formation of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) to restrict nuclear technology transfer. India’s refusal to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) led to decades of technological and fuel isolation.
  • Indo-US Nuclear Deal (2008): This landmark agreement, formally the “123 Agreement”, provided a waiver for India from the NSG, allowing it to import uranium and reactors for its civilian nuclear programme. This eased the uranium shortage for Stage 1 reactors but did not grant India full NSG membership, which is still being blocked by countries like China, creating uncertainties.

• Public Opposition and Social Acceptance:

  • Anti-Nuclear Activism: Strong public opposition, often led by civil society groups and local communities, has delayed or stalled several projects. Notable examples include the intense protests against the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu and the proposed Jaitapur project in Maharashtra, which faced opposition over land acquisition, environmental impact, and livelihood concerns of the local fishing community.
  • Impact of Global Accidents: Major nuclear accidents have significantly swayed public opinion against nuclear power. The Chernobyl disaster (1986) in the Soviet Union and the Fukushima Daiichi disaster (2011) in Japan, triggered by a massive tsunami, amplified safety concerns globally and intensified anti-nuclear movements in India. These events led to calls for more stringent safety reviews and often resulted in project delays.

• Economic Viability:

  • Competition from Renewables: In the last decade, the cost of renewable energy, particularly solar power, has plummeted dramatically. The Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) from solar is now highly competitive with, and often cheaper than, new nuclear power plants.
  • High Capital Costs: Nuclear power plants are characterized by extremely high upfront capital costs, long gestation periods (often exceeding a decade), and significant decommissioning costs. This makes private investment difficult and places a heavy burden on public finances, leading the government to prioritize more rapidly deployable and cost-effective renewable energy sources to meet its climate targets.

Nuclear Fusion

• Fundamental Principle: Nuclear fusion is the process where two or more light atomic nuclei combine to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons or protons). The mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the combined mass of the two original nuclei. This ‘lost’ mass is converted into a substantial amount of energy, as described by Albert Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence equation, E=mc².
• Stellar Process: Fusion is the natural process that powers the Sun and other stars. In the Sun’s core, immense gravitational pressure creates temperatures of about 15 million degrees Celsius. At these temperatures, hydrogen nuclei (protons) have enough kinetic energy to overcome their mutual electrostatic repulsion (the Coulomb barrier) and fuse together through the proton-proton chain reaction, ultimately forming helium nuclei and releasing vast amounts of energy.
• Replicating Fusion on Earth: Achieving controlled fusion on Earth requires creating and confining a plasma (a superheated state of matter where electrons are stripped from atoms) at temperatures exceeding 100 million degrees Celsius. Two primary methods are being researched:
  • Magnetic Confinement Fusion (MCF): This approach uses powerful magnetic fields to contain the hot plasma in a doughnut-shaped device called a Tokamak (a Russian acronym for “toroidal chamber with magnetic coils”). The magnetic fields prevent the extremely hot plasma from touching the walls of the reactor. The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), under construction in France, is the world’s largest Tokamak project, a collaboration of 35 nations including India. Other notable tokamaks include China’s EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak) and the recently decommissioned JET (Joint European Torus) in the UK. India operates its own research tokamaks, Aditya and SST-1 (Steady State Superconducting-1), at the Institute for Plasma Research in Gandhinagar.
  • Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF): This method involves rapidly compressing and heating a tiny pellet of fuel, typically containing deuterium and tritium. This is achieved by firing extremely powerful laser beams uniformly onto the pellet’s surface. The sudden compression increases the density and temperature of the fuel to the point where fusion reactions are initiated. In December 2022, the National Ignition Facility (NIF) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, USA, announced a major breakthrough by achieving “ignition,” where a fusion reaction produced more energy than was delivered to the target by the lasers for the first time.

Benefits of Nuclear Fusion

Compared to nuclear fission, fusion offers several significant potential advantages:

• Abundant and Accessible Fuel: The primary fuels for fusion, deuterium and tritium, are relatively abundant. Deuterium can be extracted from all forms of water. Tritium, which is radioactive with a short half-life, is not naturally abundant but can be produced or ‘bred’ within the reactor itself by bombarding lithium (an abundant light metal) with neutrons generated from the fusion reaction.
• Enhanced Safety: Fusion reactors are inherently safer than fission reactors.
  • No Meltdown Risk: The amount of fuel present in the plasma chamber at any given moment is very small (only a few grams), which is insufficient to sustain a runaway chain reaction.
  • Self-Limiting Reaction: The fusion process requires extremely precise conditions of temperature, pressure, and confinement. Any malfunction or disruption would cause the plasma to cool down, and the reaction would stop almost instantaneously.
• Clean Energy and Less Radioactive Waste:
  • No Greenhouse Gases: Like fission, fusion does not produce carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases.
  • Less Long-Lived Waste: The primary byproduct of the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction is helium, an inert and harmless gas. While the reactor’s structural materials become radioactive due to neutron bombardment, the resulting waste products have significantly shorter half-lives (decades to a century) compared to the long-lived radioactive waste from fission reactors (which can remain hazardous for tens of thousands of years).
• Higher Energy Yield: On a mass-for-mass basis, the fusion of deuterium and tritium releases nearly four times more energy than the fission of a uranium atom.
• Non-Proliferation: Fusion technology and its fuel (deuterium, lithium) do not produce or require fissile materials like enriched uranium or plutonium, which can be used for nuclear weapons. This significantly reduces the risk of nuclear proliferation.

Prelims Pointers

• Father of India’s Nuclear Programme: Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha.
• India’s Thorium Reserves: Among the largest in the world, found in monazite sands in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Odisha.
• Stage 1 Reactor: Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR).
  • Fuel: Natural Uranium (U-235 and U-238).
  • Moderator & Coolant: Heavy Water (D₂O).
  • Byproduct: Plutonium-239 (Pu-239), used in Stage 2.
• Stage 2 Reactor: Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR).
  • Fuel: Plutonium-239 and Natural Uranium.
  • Fertile Material: Thorium-232 (in a blanket).
  • Coolant: Liquid Sodium.
  • Moderator: Not used (hence ‘fast’ neutrons).
  • Product: Uranium-233 (U-233) and more Plutonium.
• Stage 3 Reactor: Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) or Thorium-based reactors.
  • Fuel: Uranium-233 and Thorium-232.
  • Goal: A self-sustaining fuel cycle.
• Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR): Located at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
• Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG): Formed in 1974 after India’s “Smiling Buddha” nuclear test. India is not a member.
• Indo-US Nuclear Deal: Signed in 2008, granted India an NSG waiver for civilian nuclear trade.
• Nuclear Fusion: Fusing of lighter nuclei (e.g., Hydrogen isotopes) to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy.
• Fusion Fuels: Deuterium (D) and Tritium (T).
• Tokamak: A doughnut-shaped magnetic confinement device for fusion research. Invented in the Soviet Union.
• ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor): World’s largest fusion experiment, located in Cadarache, France. India is a member.
• India’s Tokamaks: Aditya and SST-1, located at the Institute for Plasma Research, Gandhinagar.
• Inertial Confinement: A fusion approach using powerful lasers to compress a fuel pellet.
• Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory: Achieved a net energy gain (ignition) in a fusion experiment in 2022.

Mains Insights

GS Paper-III: Science & Technology, Energy, Economy

1. Three-Stage Programme: A Strategy for Energy Security vs. A Delayed Dream?

   • Argument for: The programme is a far-sighted strategy tailored to India’s unique resource endowment (thorium abundance). It promises long-term energy independence, insulating India from volatile global energy markets and geopolitical pressures associated with fuel imports. It is also a testament to India’s indigenous technological prowess.
   • Argument Against: The programme is critically dependent on the success of the technologically complex and delayed Stage 2 (FBRs). The decades-long delay in commissioning the PFBR has raised questions about the timeline and feasibility of the entire strategy. In the interim, the global energy landscape has transformed, with renewable energy sources like solar becoming economically competitive and rapidly scalable.
   • Conclusion: While the strategic logic of the three-stage programme remains sound for long-term energy security, its implementation has been fraught with challenges. India needs a pragmatic energy policy that continues to pursue the nuclear goal while aggressively scaling up renewables to meet immediate and medium-term energy and climate targets.

2. Nuclear Power vs. Renewable Energy: The Dilemma for India’s Energy Mix

   • Case for Nuclear Power: Provides clean, reliable, and high-density baseload power, operating 24/7, unlike intermittent renewables (solar and wind). A small land footprint is required for a large power output. The three-stage programme offers a path to near-perpetual energy supply.
   • Case for Renewables: Costs have fallen dramatically, making them the cheapest source of new electricity generation. They have short gestation periods, are scalable in a decentralized manner, and have minimal safety risks compared to nuclear. They align perfectly with global climate change mitigation efforts.
   • Analytical Insight: The debate should not be “either/or” but “both/and”. A sustainable energy future for a country of India’s size requires a diversified portfolio. Nuclear power can provide the stable baseload power that a grid heavily reliant on intermittent renewables would need for stability. The challenge lies in managing the costs, safety, and public perception of nuclear energy while rapidly expanding the renewable infrastructure.

GS Paper-II: International Relations

1. The NSG Conundrum: Balancing Strategic Autonomy and Global Integration
   • Cause-Effect: India’s 1974 nuclear test led to its isolation via the NSG. The 2008 Indo-US deal provided a waiver, enabling international cooperation, but full membership remains elusive, primarily due to China’s opposition, which links India’s entry to that of non-NPT signatory Pakistan.
   • Implications: Lack of NSG membership restricts India’s ability to participate in the rule-making process for global nuclear commerce and denies it access to certain advanced enrichment and reprocessing technologies. It reflects the complex interplay of power politics in multilateral forums. India’s strategy has been to engage with member countries bilaterally while upholding its impeccable non-proliferation record to strengthen its case for membership based on merit.

GS Paper-IV: Ethics

1. The Ethical Dimensions of Nuclear Energy
   • Inter-generational Equity: The problem of long-term radioactive waste management poses an ethical dilemma. Are we justified in creating waste that will remain hazardous for thousands of years, leaving future generations to manage the risk? This calls for robust R&D in waste transmutation and deep geological repositories.
   • Environmental Ethics: While nuclear power is clean in terms of GHG emissions, the entire fuel cycle—from uranium mining to waste disposal—has significant environmental impacts and risks. The principle of ‘do no harm’ requires stringent safety and environmental protocols.
   • Responsibility of Scientists and Policymakers: The potential for catastrophic accidents (Chernobyl, Fukushima) places an immense ethical responsibility on the scientific community and government to ensure the highest standards of safety, transparency, and public communication.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India? (UPSC 2016) (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation. (b) It can attain a global role in satellite navigation. (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation. (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation. Answer: (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation.

   • Explanation: ITER is an experiment to prove the viability of fusion as a large-scale, carbon-free source of energy. Its success would directly enable the construction of commercial fusion power plants.

2. With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)

   1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
   2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
   3. GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 only Answer: (a) 1 only
   • Explanation: This question is from S&T but reflects the type of factual questions asked. Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 describes geostationary satellites, which are launched by GSLVs, not PSLV (which launches into polar orbits). Statement 3 is incorrect; GSLV Mk III is a three-stage vehicle. (Note: While not directly on nuclear tech, this question is representative of the format. A direct question on the nuclear programme was not found in the last 5 years’ papers, but the topic is highly relevant.)

3. The term ‘IndARC’, sometimes seen in the news, is the name of: (UPSC 2015) (a) an indigenously developed radar system inducted into Indian Defence (b) India’s satellite to provide services to the countries of Indian Ocean Rim (c) a scientific establishment set up by India in Antarctic region (d) India’s underwater observatory to monitor the arctic region Answer: (d) India’s underwater observatory to monitor the arctic region

   • Explanation: This is another example of a fact-based S&T question. IndARC is India’s first moored underwater observatory in the Arctic.

4. In which of the following regions of India are shale gas resources found? (UPSC 2016)

   1. Cambay Basin
   2. Cauvery Basin
   3. Krishna-Godavari Basin Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3
   • Explanation: This question on energy resources is analogous to potential questions on the location of Uranium or Thorium reserves. All three basins are potential sites for shale gas.

5. Consider the following statements: The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) has: (UPSC 2011 - Slightly older but highly relevant)

   1. India as a member
   2. Pakistan as a member Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (d) Neither 1 nor 2
   • Explanation: Neither India nor Pakistan is a member of the NSG, as both are non-signatories to the NPT.

Mains

1. With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (UPSC 2018, GS-III)

   • Answer Framework:
     • Introduction: Briefly state India’s rising energy demand due to economic growth and the need for a clean energy transition. Mention nuclear power as a potential clean baseload energy source.
     • Arguments for Expansion (The Facts):
       • Energy Security: Mention the three-stage programme and utilization of vast thorium reserves for long-term independence.
       • Clean Energy: No GHG emissions, helping meet climate targets (NDCs).
       • Reliability: High plant load factor provides stable, 24/7 power, crucial for grid stability unlike intermittent renewables.
       • Land Efficiency: High power density, requiring less land per megawatt compared to solar or wind farms.
     • Arguments Against Expansion (The Fears):
       • Safety: Risk of accidents due to natural disasters (like Fukushima) or human error (like Chernobyl).
       • Radioactive Waste Management: The challenge of safely storing hazardous waste for thousands of years.
       • High Cost & Long Gestation: High upfront capital cost and long construction times compared to the falling costs and rapid deployment of renewables.
       • Public Opposition: “Not In My Backyard” (NIMBY) syndrome, protests at sites like Kudankulam and Jaitapur over safety and livelihood concerns.
       • Proliferation Risk: Risk of nuclear material falling into the wrong hands, though India has a strong non-proliferation record.
     • Conclusion: Conclude with a balanced view. India needs a diversified energy mix. While renewables should be the priority, a cautious and steady expansion of the nuclear programme, with the highest safety standards and robust public engagement, is essential for meeting its long-term energy security and climate goals.

2. Give an account of the growth and development of nuclear science and technology in India. What is the advantage of a fast breeder reactor programme in India? (UPSC 2017, GS-III)

   • Answer Framework:
     • Introduction: Mention the vision of Homi J. Bhabha and the establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission (1948) and DAE (1954).
     • Growth and Development:
       • Phase 1 (Early Years): Focus on research (Apsara reactor, 1956), capacity building, and laying the foundation for the three-stage programme.
       • Phase 2 (Indigenous Development): Post-1974 test, focus on self-reliance in the PHWR technology (Stage 1), mastering the complete fuel cycle from mining to reprocessing.
       • Phase 3 (Global Integration): Post-2008 NSG waiver, opening up to international collaboration, importing light water reactors (e.g., Kudankulam with Russia), and participating in global projects like ITER.
     • Advantage of Fast Breeder Reactor Programme (Stage 2):
       • Fuel Multiplier: It “breeds” more fissile material (Pu-239 and U-233) than it consumes, which is critical for a country with limited uranium reserves.
       • Gateway to Thorium Utilization: It is the vital link to Stage 3. The U-233 produced from thorium in FBRs will be the fuel for the third stage, unlocking India’s vast thorium reserves.
       • Energy Security: Successful implementation of Stage 2 will provide fuel for a massive expansion of nuclear power, ensuring energy independence for centuries.
       • Waste Management: FBRs can also be used to burn long-lived radioactive waste (actinides) from other reactors, reducing the burden of nuclear waste.
     • Conclusion: Summarize that the FBR programme is the cornerstone of India’s long-term nuclear strategy, designed to transform its resource constraints into a strategic advantage.

3. Why is India taking keen interest in the arctic region? (UPSC 2018, GS-II)

   • Answer Framework: (This question shows how UPSC can link S&T activities to geopolitics. A similar question could be framed for ITER.)
     • Introduction: State that India’s interest in the Arctic is driven by scientific, environmental, economic, and strategic considerations, despite not being an Arctic nation.
     • Scientific and Environmental Reasons:
       • Climate Change Research: The Arctic is a crucial indicator of global climate change (‘canary in the coal mine’). Studying its ice melt helps understand its impact on the Indian monsoon.
       • Research Presence: India’s research station ‘Himadri’ and underwater observatory ‘IndARC’ contribute to global scientific efforts.
     • Economic Reasons:
       • Resources: The Arctic holds significant reserves of oil, gas, and minerals, which are becoming more accessible as ice melts.
       • New Sea Routes: The opening of the Northern Sea Route (NSR) offers a shorter shipping lane between Europe and Asia, which could benefit Indian trade.
     • Strategic and Geopolitical Reasons:
       • Great Power Competition: Growing interest from global powers (China’s ‘Polar Silk Road’) makes it strategically important for India to have a presence.
       • Observer Status: India’s Observer status in the Arctic Council allows it to voice its interests in the region’s governance.
     • Conclusion: India’s engagement is not for territorial claims but to ensure its strategic and economic interests are secured in a region of growing global importance, while contributing responsibly to scientific research.

4. India’s policy of non-alignment has been criticized by some. Do you agree with this view? Justify your answer. (UPSC 2023, GS-II)

   • Answer Framework: (This question is on foreign policy, but India’s nuclear programme is a key aspect of its quest for strategic autonomy, a core tenet of non-alignment/multi-alignment.)
     • Introduction: Define non-alignment as a policy of strategic autonomy and independent foreign policy, not neutrality. Mention its evolution to ‘multi-alignment’ in the contemporary context.
     • Criticisms of Non-Alignment:
       • Accused of being passive or ineffective during crises (e.g., 1962 war).
       • Seen as losing relevance after the Cold War.
       • Perceived as hindering deeper alliances with key partners.
     • Justification of Non-Alignment/Strategic Autonomy:
       • Nuclear Programme: The decision to develop nuclear weapons and resist signing the NPT, despite immense international pressure, was a direct outcome of prioritizing strategic autonomy. This allowed India to build a credible minimum deterrent.
       • Balancing Act: Enables India to maintain positive relationships with rival blocs (e.g., USA and Russia; Israel and Iran).
       • Flexibility: Allows India to join different groupings based on its interests (e.g., Quad and SCO).
       • Indo-US Nuclear Deal: Paradoxically, it was India’s status as a responsible nuclear power outside the NPT regime that paved the way for the exceptionalism of the 2008 deal.
     • Conclusion: Conclude that while the term ‘non-alignment’ might have evolved, its core principle of ‘strategic autonomy’ remains highly relevant and has served India’s national interest well, particularly in sensitive domains like its nuclear programme and foreign policy.

5. What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (UPSC 2019, GS-III)

   • Answer Framework: (This question on space technology is a good parallel to potential questions on advanced nuclear projects like ITER or the third-stage nuclear programme.)
     • Introduction: Introduce the ‘Bharatiya Antariksha Station’ as the next logical step after the Gaganyaan mission, with a target of 2035.
     • The Plan:
       • It will be a small, 20-tonne station in a Low Earth Orbit (400 km).
       • Will serve as a microgravity laboratory for astronauts for 15-20 days.
       • Leverages technologies developed for the Gaganyaan mission (human-rated launch vehicle, life support systems, crew modules).
     • Benefits to the Space Programme:
       • Scientific Research: Enables long-duration experiments in microgravity in fields like biology, materials science, and physics.
       • Technological Advancement: Drives innovation in life support, robotics, docking technology, and long-duration space travel systems.
       • Human Spaceflight Capability: Provides a platform for sustained human presence in space, paving the way for more ambitious missions (lunar or interplanetary).
       • Global Prestige and Diplomacy: Puts India in an elite club of nations with space stations, enhancing its geopolitical stature and opening avenues for international collaboration.
       • Inspiration and Education: Inspires the next generation of scientists and engineers (STEM education).
     • Conclusion: The Indian space station is a strategic investment that will not only boost scientific and technological capabilities but also enhance India’s global standing and inspire future generations.