GS Notes

19. Science and Technology Notes 07

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Elaborate Notes

Radioactivity

Radioactivity is a phenomenon wherein the unstable atomic nuclei of certain elements spontaneously disintegrate or decay to form nuclei of other elements, releasing energy in the form of particles or electromagnetic waves. This process continues until a stable nucleus is formed.

  • Historical Context: The discovery of radioactivity is credited to French physicist Henri Becquerel in 1896, who observed that uranium salts emitted penetrating rays that could fog photographic plates, even in the dark. His work was further expanded by Marie and Pierre Curie, who, in the late 1890s, isolated two new radioactive elements, Polonium and Radium. Marie Curie coined the term “radioactivity”. For their collective work on radiation, Becquerel and the Curies were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903.

  • Mechanism of Decay: Unstable nuclei have an imbalanced neutron-to-proton ratio. To achieve a more stable configuration, they undergo radioactive decay, emitting specific types of radiation.

    • Alpha (α) Decay: An alpha particle, which is identical to a helium nucleus (two protons and two neutrons, He²⁺), is emitted. This type of decay is common in heavy nuclei (atomic number > 83).
      • Equation:
        ᴬ_Z X → ᴬ⁻⁴_(Z-2) Y + ⁴₂He
        (where X is the parent nuclide and Y is the daughter nuclide).
      • Effect: The atomic number (Z) decreases by 2, and the mass number (A) decreases by 4. For instance, Uranium-238 decays into Thorium-234 by emitting an alpha particle.
    • Beta (β) Decay: This involves the transformation of a neutron into a proton (or vice versa) within the nucleus.
      • Beta-minus (β⁻) Decay: A neutron converts into a proton, emitting an electron (beta particle) and an antineutrino. This occurs in neutron-rich nuclei.
        • Equation:
          ᴬ_Z X → ᴬ_(Z+1) Y + ⁰₋₁e⁻ + ν̅ₑ
        • Effect: The atomic number (Z) increases by 1, while the mass number (A) remains unchanged. The resulting nuclide is an isobar of the original. For example, Carbon-14 decays into Nitrogen-14.
      • Beta-plus (β⁺) Decay (Positron Emission): A proton converts into a neutron, emitting a positron (the antiparticle of an electron) and a neutrino. This occurs in proton-rich nuclei.
        • Equation:
          ᴬ_Z X → ᴬ_(Z-1) Y + ⁰₊₁e⁺ + νₑ
        • Effect: The atomic number (Z) decreases by 1, while the mass number (A) remains constant.
    • Gamma (γ) Decay: This is the emission of a high-energy photon (gamma ray). It usually occurs after alpha or beta decay, when the daughter nucleus is left in an excited energetic state. By emitting a gamma ray, the nucleus transitions to a lower energy, more stable state.
      • Effect: Gamma decay does not change the atomic number or mass number of the nucleus; it only reduces its energy.

  • Half-Life (T₁/₂): This is the characteristic time it takes for half of the radioactive nuclei in a given sample to decay. It is a constant for each radioisotope and is independent of physical conditions like temperature or pressure.

    • Example: Carbon-14 (C-14) has a half-life of approximately 5,730 years. This property is the basis of radiocarbon dating, a method developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960. This technique is used to date organic archaeological artifacts like the linen wrappings of Egyptian mummies or the charcoal from ancient fire pits at Harappan sites.

  • Sources: Radioisotopes can be naturally occurring (e.g., Uranium-238, Potassium-40, Carbon-14) or produced artificially in nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.

Applications of Radioactivity

The properties of radioisotopes make them invaluable tools in various fields.

  • Applications in Agriculture

    • Plant Mutation Breeding: Exposure of seeds or plant parts to controlled doses of gamma radiation (often from a Cobalt-60 source) induces genetic mutations. While most mutations are deleterious, some may result in desirable traits like higher yield, pest resistance, or tolerance to drought and salinity. In India, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) has developed several improved crop varieties using this technique, such as disease-resistant groundnuts and high-yielding pulses.
    • Fertilizer Efficiency Studies: By using fertilizers labeled with radioisotopes like Phosphorus-32 (P-32) or Nitrogen-15 (N-15), scientists can trace the path and measure the uptake of the fertilizer by the plant. This helps in determining the optimal amount, placement, and timing of fertilizer application, reducing wastage and environmental pollution.
    • Food Processing (Food Irradiation): This process exposes food products to ionizing radiation (gamma rays, X-rays, or electron beams) to destroy microorganisms like bacteria and molds. This enhances food safety by eliminating pathogens like Salmonella and E. coli, extends shelf life by delaying spoilage and ripening, and controls insect infestations in stored grains. Irradiated foods are marked with the international “Radura” symbol. The safety of this process is endorsed by organizations like the WHO and the FAO.

  • Application in Medicine

    • Radiotherapy:
      • External Beam Therapy (Teletherapy): A focused beam of gamma radiation, typically from a Cobalt-60 source, is directed at a cancerous tumor to destroy malignant cells by damaging their DNA.
      • Brachytherapy: This involves placing a sealed radioactive source directly inside or next to the tumor. This allows for a high dose of radiation to the tumor while minimizing exposure to surrounding healthy tissues. Iridium-192 and Iodine-125 are commonly used isotopes.
      • Proton Beam Therapy: An advanced form of radiotherapy that uses a beam of protons instead of X-rays or gamma rays. Protons deposit most of their energy at a specific depth (the Bragg peak), with minimal radiation dose beyond the tumor, significantly reducing side effects.
    • Nuclear Medicine (Diagnosis): Radiotracers, which are chemical compounds containing a short-lived radioisotope (e.g., Technetium-99m), are introduced into the body. A gamma camera or PET scanner detects the radiation emitted from the tracer, which accumulates in specific organs or tissues. This allows for imaging of physiological processes and detection of diseases like cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders.
    • Radiation Sterilization: Gamma radiation is highly effective in sterilizing medical equipment such as syringes, surgical gloves, and implants. It is a method of cold sterilization, suitable for heat-sensitive plastic materials, and ensures a high degree of sterility by killing all microorganisms.

  • Application in Space

    • Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG): For deep space missions where solar energy is too faint (e.g., missions to outer planets), RTGs provide a reliable power source. They use the heat generated from the natural decay of a radioisotope, typically Plutonium-238, and convert this heat into electricity using thermocouples. NASA has extensively used RTGs in missions like Voyager, Cassini, and the Curiosity Mars rover. ISRO is in the process of developing indigenous RTG technology for future interplanetary missions.
    • Nuclear Propulsion: This concept aims to use the heat from a nuclear fission reactor to heat a propellant (like liquid hydrogen) to very high temperatures, which is then expelled through a nozzle to generate thrust. This technology promises much higher efficiency and shorter travel times for long-duration manned missions, such as to Mars, but remains in the experimental and developmental stage due to technical and safety challenges.

  • Applications in Industry and Research

    • Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): Industrial radiography uses gamma rays (from sources like Iridium-192 or Cobalt-60) to inspect welds, pipelines, and structural components for internal flaws like cracks or voids without damaging the material.
    • Tracer Technology: Radiotracers are used to detect leaks in underground pipelines, study the flow of liquids, and monitor industrial processes.
    • Water Desalination: The large amount of heat generated by nuclear power plants can be used for large-scale desalination of seawater, providing a source of fresh water. This process is known as nuclear desalination.
    • Archaeology and Geology: Radiocarbon dating (Carbon-14) is used for dating organic materials up to about 50,000 years old. For older geological samples, other radio-dating methods are used, such as Potassium-Argon dating or Uranium-Lead dating, which have much longer half-lives.

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale. It involves science, engineering, and technology at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers (nm).

  • Historical Context: The conceptual foundation of nanotechnology was laid by physicist Richard Feynman in his 1959 lecture “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom”, where he envisioned manipulating individual atoms and molecules. The term “nanotechnology” was coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974. The invention of the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) in 1981 by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer provided the tools to see and manipulate individual atoms, launching the modern era of nanotechnology.

  • Uniqueness of Nanomaterials: Materials at the nanoscale exhibit properties (e.g., optical, magnetic, electrical) that are often vastly different from their bulk (macroscale) counterparts. This uniqueness arises primarily from two factors:

    • Quantum Effects: At the nanoscale, classical physics gives way to quantum mechanics. The electronic and optical properties of materials become dependent on their size and shape.
      • Example: Quantum Dots (QDs). These are semiconductor nanocrystals. A key property is that the color of light they emit when excited depends on their size. Smaller dots emit blue light, while larger dots emit red light. This size-tunable property allows scientists to fine-tune their characteristics for applications in displays (QLED TVs), medical imaging, and solar cells.
    • Increased Surface Area to Volume Ratio: As a particle’s size decreases, its surface area relative to its volume increases dramatically. For a given mass of material, nanoparticles have a much larger surface area exposed compared to larger particles.
      • Implication: This high surface area leads to a greater proportion of atoms being on the surface, which significantly enhances the material’s chemical reactivity. This makes nanomaterials highly effective catalysts, as catalytic reactions occur on the surface of the material. For example, platinum nanoparticles are more efficient catalysts in automobile catalytic converters than bulk platinum.

Prelims Pointers

  • Radioactivity was discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896.
  • An alpha particle is a Helium nucleus (²⁺He⁴).
  • In alpha decay, the mass number decreases by 4, and the atomic number decreases by 2.
  • In beta-minus (β⁻) decay, the mass number remains the same, but the atomic number increases by 1.
  • A nuclide transformed through beta decay becomes an isobar of the original nuclide.
  • Gamma rays are high-energy photons emitted from an excited nucleus.
  • Half-life is the time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay.
  • The half-life of Carbon-14 is approximately 5,730 years.
  • Carbon-14 dating was developed by Willard Libby.
  • Isotopes and their uses:
    1. Cobalt-60: External beam cancer therapy (teletherapy), food irradiation, industrial radiography.
    2. Iridium-192: Brachytherapy (internal cancer treatment), industrial radiography.
    3. Plutonium-238: Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) for deep space missions.
    4. Carbon-14: Radiocarbon dating of organic materials.
    5. Phosphorus-32 / Nitrogen-15: Used as tracers to study fertilizer uptake in plants.
    6. Technetium-99m: Most commonly used radioisotope in medical diagnostics (nuclear medicine).
  • Food irradiation uses gamma rays, X-rays, or electron beams to kill microbes and extend shelf life.
  • The international symbol for irradiated food is the ‘Radura’.
  • A nanometer (nm) is one-billionth of a meter (10⁻⁹ m).
  • The nanoscale is defined as the range of 1 to 100 nm.
  • Quantum dots are semiconductor nanocrystals whose optical properties are size-dependent.
  • Nanomaterials have a very high surface area to volume ratio, which increases their chemical reactivity and catalytic efficiency.
  • Richard Feynman’s 1959 speech “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” is considered the conceptual origin of nanotechnology.

Mains Insights

Radioactivity: A Double-Edged Sword

The applications of radioactivity present a classic case of dual-use technology, offering immense benefits alongside significant risks.

  • Cause-Effect Relationships:

    • Benefit (Cause): The ability of radiation to kill living cells.
      • Positive Effect: This is harnessed in medicine to destroy cancer cells (radiotherapy) and sterilize equipment, and in agriculture to kill pathogens in food (irradiation).
      • Negative Effect: Uncontrolled exposure to the same radiation can cause cancer, genetic mutations, and radiation sickness in healthy individuals. This necessitates stringent safety protocols.
    • Benefit (Cause): The immense energy released during nuclear reactions (fission).
      • Positive Effect: Provides a high-density, carbon-free source of energy (nuclear power), crucial for energy security and mitigating climate change.
      • Negative Effect: Can be weaponized (atomic bombs) and poses risks of catastrophic accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, 1986; Fukushima, 2011) and the long-term challenge of managing radioactive waste.

  • Historiographical & Geopolitical Debates:

    • Nuclear Power in India’s Energy Mix: There is an ongoing debate on the role of nuclear power.
      • Proponents: Argue for its necessity to meet India’s growing energy demands, achieve climate goals under the Paris Agreement, and ensure energy independence. They point to India’s three-stage nuclear programme as a path to self-sufficiency.
      • Opponents: Raise concerns about the safety of nuclear reactors, the high capital costs, land acquisition issues (e.g., Jaitapur protests), and the unresolved problem of permanent disposal of nuclear waste.
    • Regulation and Safety: The effectiveness of regulatory bodies like the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) in India and the IAEA internationally is a subject of scrutiny, especially post-Fukushima. The debate centers on whether these bodies are truly independent and have sufficient authority to enforce safety standards.

Nanotechnology: The Next Industrial Revolution?

Nanotechnology is often hailed as a transformative technology with the potential to revolutionize sectors from medicine to manufacturing. However, its development also raises profound ethical and societal questions.

  • Potential vs. Peril Analysis:

    • Healthcare:
      • Potential: Targeted drug delivery using nanoparticles can deliver medicine directly to cancer cells, increasing efficacy and reducing side effects. Nanobots could perform cellular-level surgery.
      • Peril (Ethical/Social Issue): Nanotoxicity – the potential adverse effects of nanoparticles on human health and the environment are not fully understood. There are concerns about their bio-accumulation and long-term impact.
    • Environment:
      • Potential: Nanomaterials can be used for highly efficient water purification (nanofiltration), environmental remediation (cleaning up pollutants), and developing more efficient solar cells.
      • Peril: The release of engineered nanoparticles into ecosystems could have unforeseen consequences, disrupting natural cycles and food chains.
    • Economy & Society:
      • Potential: Can lead to new industries, job creation, and superior products (e.g., stronger, lighter materials for aerospace).
      • Peril: Could widen the “nano-divide” between developed and developing nations. Concerns about privacy and surveillance arise from the potential use of nano-sensors.

  • Policy and Governance Perspective:

    • Government Initiatives: India launched the Nano Mission in 2007 to foster R&D and infrastructure in nanotechnology. Its success depends on bridging the gap between research and commercialization.
    • Regulatory Framework: There is a pressing need for a robust regulatory framework for nanotechnology-based products to address health and environmental safety concerns before they are widely commercialized. This involves developing standardized testing protocols for nanotoxicity.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. (UPSC CSE 2022) With reference to the “fuel cells” in which hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the following statements:

    1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and water as by-products.
    2. Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for small devices like laptop computers.
    3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current (AC). Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (a) Explanation: Fuel cells using pure hydrogen produce only heat and water, making them clean. Statement 1 is correct. Fuel cells are scalable and can power everything from small devices (laptops) to large buildings. Statement 2 is incorrect. Fuel cells produce Direct Current (DC), not Alternating Current (AC). Statement 3 is incorrect. (This question is on a related energy technology topic often studied alongside nuclear energy).

  2. (UPSC CSE 2020) With reference to carbon nanotubes, consider the following statements:

    1. They can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in the human body.
    2. They can be made into artificial blood capillaries for an injured part of the human body.
    3. They can be used in biochemical sensors.
    4. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: (d) Explanation: All statements are correct. Carbon nanotubes, a key product of nanotechnology, have shown potential in all these applications due to their unique structural, chemical, and biological properties, including biocompatibility and biodegradability under certain conditions.

  3. (UPSC CSE 2019) In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under “IAEA Safeguards” while others are not? (a) Some use uranium and others use thorium. (b) Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies. (c) Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises. (d) Some are State-owned and others are privately-owned. Answer: (b) Explanation: India’s civil nuclear reactors which use imported uranium (from countries in the Nuclear Suppliers Group) are placed under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards as a condition of the fuel supply agreements. Reactors that use domestic uranium are designated for strategic/military purposes and are kept outside IAEA safeguards to maintain the autonomy of India’s nuclear weapons program.

  4. (UPSC CSE 2018) The term ‘sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction’ is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of: (a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems. (b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs. (c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity. (d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change. Answer: (d) Explanation: While not directly on radioactivity, this question relates to large-scale environmental changes, a theme connected to the long-term impact of nuclear waste and accidents (like Chernobyl’s impact on ecosystems). The term refers to the ongoing extinction event of species mainly due to human activity.

  5. (UPSC CSE 2017) The application of Sea-floor spreading is a very important theory that helps in understanding various phenomena. Which among the following is not such a phenomenon? (a) Volcanism in the Pacific Ring of Fire (b) The origin and evolution of the Hawaiian Islands (c) Paleomagnetism (d) Radiometric dating of rocks Answer: (d) Explanation: Radiometric dating is an independent technique used to determine the age of rocks based on the decay of radioactive isotopes. While it provides the chronological data that validates the theory of seafloor spreading, the method itself is not a phenomenon explained by the theory. Seafloor spreading helps explain volcanism, the creation of island chains like Hawaii (via hotspots), and the magnetic striping on the ocean floor (paleomagnetism).

Mains

  1. (UPSC CSE 2022) What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What are the different approaches to vaccine design? Note: While not directly on radioactivity, this question on biotechnology applications is in the same GS-III S&T syllabus section. A similar question could be framed on medical applications of radioactivity. Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define vaccines as biological preparations that provide active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease.
    • Basic Principle: Explain the principle of stimulating the body’s adaptive immune system (B-cells and T-cells) to recognize a specific pathogen (antigen) without causing the disease, thereby creating immunological memory.
    • How Vaccines Work: Describe the process: introduction of antigen → recognition by immune cells → production of antibodies and memory cells → rapid and robust response upon future exposure to the actual pathogen.
    • Different Approaches: Discuss various vaccine platforms:
      • Live-attenuated (e.g., MMR)
      • Inactivated (e.g., Polio)
      • Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate (e.g., Hepatitis B)
      • Toxoid (e.g., Tetanus)
      • Viral Vector (e.g., Covishield)
      • mRNA (e.g., Pfizer, Moderna)
    • Conclusion: Summarize the monumental impact of vaccines on public health and mention the challenges like vaccine hesitancy and the need for new platforms for emerging diseases.

  2. (UPSC CSE 2020) What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society? Note: Nanotechnology is a key area of applied science similar to biotechnology. Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define applied biotechnology as the use of living organisms or their products for practical purposes in fields like medicine, agriculture, and industry.
    • R&D Achievements:
      • Healthcare: Recombinant DNA technology (Insulin), Gene therapy, Monoclonal antibodies, CRISPR-Cas9, development of vaccines (as in Q1).
      • Agriculture: Genetically Modified (GM) crops (Bt Cotton for pest resistance), Marker-assisted selection for crop improvement, Bio-fertilizers.
      • Industry: Bioremediation for pollution control, production of biofuels, use of enzymes in detergents.
    • Uplifting Poorer Sections:
      • Agriculture: Increased crop yields and reduced pesticide costs for small farmers (e.g., Bt Cotton). Development of drought and salinity-resistant crops ensures food security.
      • Health: Affordable diagnostics and vaccines reduce the disease burden and out-of-pocket expenditure on health.
      • Livelihood: Biofuels can provide rural energy security. Animal husbandry benefits from advanced breeding techniques.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that while biotechnology holds immense promise for inclusive development, challenges related to cost, access, and ethical concerns must be addressed through robust policy and regulation.

  3. (UPSC CSE 2018) Why is India taking keen interest in the resource of Arctic region? Note: This question relates to geopolitics and resources, a theme relevant to nuclear fuel (uranium) sourcing and energy security. Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Mention India’s Observer status in the Arctic Council and its research station, ‘Himadri’.
    • Reasons for Keen Interest:
      • Energy Resources: The Arctic is estimated to hold significant reserves of oil, natural gas, and minerals, including strategic minerals. India’s energy import-dependency drives this interest.
      • Sea Routes: The melting of Arctic ice is opening up new shipping routes like the Northern Sea Route, which would significantly reduce shipping time and costs between Europe and Asia.
      • Climate Change Research: The Arctic is a crucial barometer for global climate change. Studying its ecosystem and ice melt is vital for understanding monsoon patterns in India.
      • Geostrategic: To ensure a peaceful and rules-based governance of the Arctic and to counterbalance the influence of other major powers in the region.
    • Conclusion: India’s engagement is driven by a confluence of economic, environmental, and strategic imperatives, positioning itself as a responsible stakeholder in the region’s future.

  4. (UPSC CSE 2018) With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: State India’s commitment to increasing its nuclear power capacity as part of its strategy for clean energy and energy security, referencing the three-stage nuclear program.
    • Arguments for Expansion (The Facts):
      • Clean Energy: It is a non-intermittent, low-carbon energy source, crucial for meeting climate targets.
      • Energy Security: Reduces dependence on imported fossil fuels.
      • High Energy Density: A small amount of fuel produces a large amount of energy, making land requirements smaller than for solar or wind farms of similar capacity.
      • Technological Self-Reliance: India’s three-stage program aims to utilize its vast thorium reserves.
    • Arguments Against Expansion (The Fears):
      • Safety and Accidents: The risk of accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima, with catastrophic consequences.
      • Radioactive Waste Management: The unresolved challenge of safe, long-term disposal of high-level radioactive waste.
      • High Cost and Gestation Period: Nuclear plants are capital-intensive and take a long time to build.
      • Public Perception and Protests: Opposition from local communities due to safety and livelihood concerns (e.g., protests against the Kudankulam plant).
      • Nuclear Proliferation: Risk of nuclear material falling into the wrong hands.
    • Conclusion: Conclude that a balanced approach is needed. While nuclear energy is a vital component of India’s energy basket, its expansion must be accompanied by the highest safety standards, a transparent regulatory framework, robust waste management solutions, and public consensus-building.

  5. (UPSC CSE 2017) Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including Leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments. Note: This question on a frontier medical technology is analogous to those that could be asked on Brachytherapy, Proton Beam Therapy, or medical applications of nanotechnology. Answer Framework:

    • Introduction: Define stem cells as undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various cell types and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell.
    • What is Stem Cell Therapy?: Explain that it is a form of regenerative medicine that uses stem cells to repair or replace damaged cells, tissues, or organs. Describe the two main types: using the patient’s own cells (autologous) or a donor’s cells (allogeneic).
    • Advantages over Other Treatments:
      • Regenerative Potential: Instead of just managing symptoms, it has the potential to cure diseases by replacing the root cause—the damaged cells (e.g., replacing faulty bone marrow in Leukaemia).
      • Reduced Risk of Rejection: Using autologous stem cells minimizes the risk of immune rejection compared to organ transplants.
      • Broader Applicability: Potential to treat a wide range of conditions for which conventional treatments are limited, including neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson’s), diabetes, and heart disease.
      • Reduced Side Effects: Can be more targeted than treatments like chemotherapy, which affect both healthy and diseased cells.
    • Conclusion: Summarize that while stem cell therapy offers revolutionary potential, it is still an evolving field. Mention the need for more research, clinical trials, and ethical guidelines to realize its full benefits safely.

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