GS Notes

19. Science and Technology Notes 14

21 min read

Elaborate Notes

Challenges with Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence, while offering transformative potential, presents a complex array of challenges that require careful consideration and governance.

  • Algorithmic Bias and Discrimination: AI systems learn from data, and if the training data reflects existing societal biases, the AI will perpetuate and even amplify them. This phenomenon is known as algorithmic bias.

    • Historical Context: The issue gained prominence with studies on systems used in criminal justice. For instance, the COMPAS (Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions) software used in the U.S. was found by ProPublica in 2016 to be biased against African-American defendants, rating them as higher risk for recidivism than their white counterparts.
    • Example: Microsoft’s chatbot, Tay, was released on Twitter in 2016. Within hours, it began to post inflammatory and offensive tweets, having learned from its interactions with other users, demonstrating how AI can absorb and reflect the worst of human biases from unfiltered data. Similarly, an experimental hiring tool by Amazon (reported in 2018) was found to penalize resumes containing the word “women’s,” as it was trained on a decade’s worth of resumes submitted to the company, which were predominantly from men.
    • Scholarly Reference: Cathy O’Neil, in her book “Weapons of Math Destruction” (2016), argues that these biased, opaque, and unaccountable algorithmic models create a vicious cycle, reinforcing inequality.

  • Transparency and Accountability: Many advanced AI models, particularly deep learning networks, operate as “black boxes.” It is often difficult, even for their creators, to understand the exact reasoning behind a specific decision.

    • The Accountability Dilemma: This opacity creates a significant accountability gap. For example, in the case of an accident caused by an autonomous vehicle (e.g., a Tesla on Autopilot), determining liability is complex. Is the owner, the manufacturer, the software programmer, or the AI itself responsible? This legal and ethical gray area is a major hurdle. The first fatal crash involving a self-driving car occurred in 2018 in Arizona, involving a vehicle operated by Uber, raising profound questions about accountability.

  • Data Privacy Concerns: AI systems, especially machine learning models, are data-hungry. They require vast datasets for training and operation, which raises significant privacy issues.

    • Example: The collection of personal data by social media platforms to train their recommendation algorithms can be used for surveillance or manipulative advertising, potentially infringing on an individual’s right to privacy, a concern highlighted by the Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) vs. Union of India (2017) case in India.

  • Job Displacement: The automation capabilities of AI threaten to displace human workers in various sectors.

    • Economic Impact: While AI also creates new jobs, there is a concern about a net loss of jobs and rising inequality. Jobs involving routine cognitive and manual tasks are most at risk. This includes roles in data entry, customer service, transportation (truck drivers), and even junior-level programming and accounting. A 2019 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) estimated that 14% of existing jobs could disappear as a result of automation in the next 15-20 years, and another 32% are likely to change radically.

  • Negative Applications and Security Threats: The dual-use nature of AI means it can be weaponized.

    • Example: Deepfakes, which are synthetic media created using AI, can be used to generate convincing but fake images and videos. This technology can be used for malicious purposes such as creating non-consensual pornography, spreading political disinformation, or impersonating individuals for fraud. The use of autonomous weapons systems (“killer robots”) also raises profound ethical questions debated at the United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW).

  • India-Specific Challenges: Developing countries like India face unique hurdles in harnessing AI’s potential.

    • Skills Gap: There is a significant shortage of a skilled workforce in advanced AI fields like machine learning engineering and data science. NASSCOM reports have consistently highlighted this gap between academic curricula and industry requirements.
    • Infrastructure Deficit: High-end AI research requires massive computational power, which depends on robust cloud computing infrastructure, high-speed internet, and a reliable power supply, areas where India still faces challenges, especially outside metropolitan centers.
    • Data Issues: While India generates vast amounts of data, challenges exist regarding the availability of high-quality, curated, and labeled datasets for training AI models in Indian languages and contexts. Data security and privacy frameworks are still evolving.

Data Protection Regime

A data protection regime is a legal and technical framework designed to protect individuals’ personal information.

  • Case Study: Cambridge Analytica Scandal (2018): This scandal became a watershed moment for data privacy. A political consulting firm, Cambridge Analytica, harvested the personal data of millions of Facebook users without their consent through a third-party personality quiz app. This data was then used to build psychological profiles of voters and target them with personalized political advertisements during events like the 2016 U.S. presidential election. The incident exposed the vulnerability of personal data on social media platforms and the potential for its misuse to influence democratic processes. It led to massive fines for Facebook and spurred calls for stronger data protection regulations globally.

  • General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR): Enacted by the European Union in 2018, the GDPR is considered the gold standard for data protection law worldwide. It is built on several key principles:

    1. Lawfulness, Fairness, and Transparency: Processing must be lawful, and data subjects must be clearly informed about how their data is being collected, used, and shared.
    2. Purpose Limitation: Data can only be collected for specified, explicit, and legitimate purposes and not further processed in a manner incompatible with those purposes.
    3. Data Minimization: Only data that is absolutely necessary for the specified purpose should be collected and processed.
    4. Accuracy: Personal data must be accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date. This includes the right of individuals to have inaccurate data rectified.
    5. Storage Limitation: Data should be kept in a form which permits identification of data subjects for no longer than is necessary for the purposes for which the personal data are processed.
    6. Integrity and Confidentiality (Security): Data must be processed in a manner that ensures its security, including protection against unauthorized or unlawful processing and against accidental loss, destruction, or damage.
    7. Accountability: The data controller is responsible for and must be able to demonstrate compliance with all the other principles. Non-compliance can result in hefty fines.

  • The Right to be Forgotten: Stemming from the principles of data accuracy and minimization, this right (enshrined in Article 17 of the GDPR) allows individuals to request the deletion of their personal data when it is no longer necessary for the purpose it was collected, or if they withdraw consent, among other reasons. In India, this right has been deliberated by various High Courts and is seen as an extension of the Right to Privacy.

  • Indian Context: India passed the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, which establishes a framework for the processing of digital personal data. It is based on principles of consent, purpose limitation, and data minimization, drawing inspiration from global standards like GDPR but tailored to the Indian context.

Data Localization and Data Colonialism

  • Data Localization: This is a policy requirement that data about a nation’s citizens or residents, collected within its borders, should be stored and processed within the country.

    • Rationale: Proponents, including the Indian government, argue that data localization is essential for national security, enabling law enforcement agencies to access data for investigations without navigating complex international legal procedures. It is also promoted to boost the domestic digital economy by creating a demand for local data centers and infrastructure.
    • Criticism: Critics, primarily global technology companies, argue that it leads to the “balkanization” or fragmentation of the internet, increases operational costs, and can stifle innovation. They advocate for a policy of free data flow with strong data protection agreements. The Srikrishna Committee (2018), which drafted the initial Personal Data Protection Bill, recommended a hybrid approach with localization requirements for critical personal data.

  • Data Colonialism: This is a critical term that describes the contemporary practice of large corporations (mostly from developed nations) and powerful states exploiting the data of individuals and entire populations (often in the Global South) as a raw resource, without providing adequate compensation or respecting their sovereignty.

    • Scholarly Reference: The concept was popularized by scholars Nick Couldry and Ulises A. Mejias in their book “The Costs of Connection: How Data is Colonizing Human Life and Appropriating It for Capitalism” (2019). They argue that this is a new form of colonialism where human life itself is annexed for data extraction, creating new power imbalances between those who control the data infrastructure and those who are merely data subjects.

Indigenization of Defence Technology

Indigenization refers to the capability of developing and producing any defence equipment within the country, thereby reducing dependency on imports.

  • Context: Post-independence, India relied heavily on imports for its defence needs, primarily from the Soviet Union and Western countries. The need for self-reliance was acutely felt after sanctions were imposed following the 1998 nuclear tests. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) report for 2018-2022 consistently places India among the top arms importers globally.

  • Challenges to Indigenization:

    1. Low R&D Expenditure: India’s defence budget as a percentage of its GDP has been modest, and within that, the allocation for research and development is critically low. A significant portion is consumed by salaries and pensions (Revenue Expenditure), leaving little for capital outlay on modernization and R&D.
    2. Lack of Private Sector Participation: Historically, India’s defence sector has been dominated by public-sector undertakings (DPSUs) and Ordnance Factory Boards (OFBs). The private sector’s entry has been slow due to bureaucratic hurdles, complex procurement processes, and a lack of assurance of orders. This contrasts with countries like the US, Israel, and France, where a vibrant private defence industry drives innovation.
    3. Bureaucratic Red-Tapism and Policy Flux: Delays in decision-making, changing technical requirements, and a complex procurement process have plagued defence acquisition. The Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP), now the Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP), has been revised multiple times to streamline the process, but challenges remain.
    4. Absence of a Comprehensive National Security Doctrine: A clearly articulated national security doctrine would guide long-term capability development and procurement priorities, preventing ad-hoc and reactive acquisitions.
    5. Technological and Raw Material Gaps: India still depends on imports for critical components, subsystems, and specialized raw materials like certain alloys and carbon composites required for advanced defence manufacturing.

  • Achievements and Recent Initiatives:

    1. Successful Indigenous Platforms: India has developed key systems like the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile (a successful joint venture with Russia), the Pinaka multi-barrel rocket launcher, the Tejas Light Combat Aircraft, and the INS Vikrant aircraft carrier. The export of BrahMos to the Philippines and Pinaka to Armenia marks a significant shift from being a buyer to a seller.
    2. Policy Push: The government has launched initiatives like Defence Industrial Corridors in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu to create a defence manufacturing ecosystem.
    3. FDI Liberalization: Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the defence sector has been liberalized to 74% under the automatic route to attract foreign technology and investment.
    4. Positive Indigenisation Lists: The Ministry of Defence has periodically released lists of items that will be procured only from domestic sources, providing a clear roadmap and assured market for Indian industry.

Missile Technology

A missile is a self-propelled, guided weapon system designed to deliver a payload (typically a warhead) to a specific target.

  • Classification of Missiles:

    • A. Based on Launch Platform and Target:

      1. Surface-to-Surface: Launched from the ground to hit a ground target (e.g., Agni series, Prithvi series).
      2. Surface-to-Air: Launched from the ground to intercept an airborne target like an aircraft or another missile (e.g., Akash, Barak-8).
      3. Air-to-Air: Launched from an aircraft to engage another aircraft (e.g., Astra).
      4. Air-to-Surface: Launched from an aircraft to hit a target on the ground or sea (e.g., BrahMos air-launched version).
      5. Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGM): Designed to destroy heavily armored military vehicles (e.g., Nag, HELINA - Helicopter launched Nag).

    • B. Based on Speed: Speed is measured by Mach number, which is the ratio of the object’s speed to the speed of sound (approx. 343 m/s in dry air at 20°C).

      1. Subsonic: Speed < Mach 1 (e.g., Nirbhay cruise missile).
      2. Supersonic: Speed between Mach 1 and Mach 5 (e.g., BrahMos, at Mach 2.8-3.0).
      3. Hypersonic: Speed > Mach 5 (e.g., India is developing the HGV- Hypersonic Glide Vehicle).

    • C. Based on Range:

      1. Short-range: < 1000 km (e.g., Prithvi).
      2. Medium-range (MRBM): 1000–3000 km (e.g., Agni-I, Agni-II).
      3. Intermediate-range (IRBM): 3000–5500 km (e.g., Agni-III, Agni-IV).
      4. Intercontinental (ICBM): > 5500 km (e.g., Agni-V).

    • D. Based on Trajectory:

      1. Ballistic Missile: Follows a ballistic (parabolic) trajectory. It is powered and guided only during the initial boost phase, after which it follows a path determined by gravity and atmospheric resistance. They typically exit the Earth’s atmosphere and re-enter to reach their target.
        • Advantages: Long range, high speed in the terminal phase, can carry large payloads (including nuclear warheads).
        • Disadvantages: High trajectory makes them detectable early by long-range radars, generally less accurate than cruise missiles, and suitable only for stationary targets. Examples: Prithvi, Agni series.
      2. Cruise Missile: A self-propelled guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift (like an airplane) and is powered throughout its flight by a jet engine. It flies at low altitudes, hugging the terrain to avoid radar detection.
        • Advantages: High accuracy, can hit moving targets, difficult to detect due to low flight path.
        • Disadvantages: Slower than ballistic missiles, shorter range due to continuous fuel consumption, and smaller payload capacity. Examples: BrahMos, Nirbhay.

Missile Development in India

  • Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP): Conceived by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and approved by the government in 1983, IGMDP was a landmark program to make India self-sufficient in missile technology. It led to the concurrent development of five missile systems, memorably known by the mnemonic PATNA:

    • Prithvi: Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile.
    • Agni: A series of medium to intercontinental range surface-to-surface ballistic missiles. Initially developed as a technology demonstrator under IGMDP, it later became a full-fledged program.
    • Trishul: Short-range surface-to-air missile. The project faced technological issues and was officially closed in 2008, with technology transferred to the Barak-8 missile program, a joint venture with Israel.
    • Nag: Third-generation “fire-and-forget” anti-tank guided missile.
    • Akash: Medium-range surface-to-air missile.

  • Canisterisation and Launch Mechanisms:

    • Canister Launch: The missile is stored and transported in a hermetically sealed canister made of special materials like maraging steel. This protects the missile from environmental factors, reduces maintenance, allows for easy transport via road or rail, and significantly cuts down the launch preparation time, enhancing strategic mobility and survivability. Agni-V is a canister-launched missile.
    • Hot Launch vs. Cold Launch:
      • Hot Launch: The missile’s main engine ignites inside the launch tube or canister. This requires complex heat management systems to protect the launcher from the intense exhaust. Most land-based missile systems use this method.
      • Cold Launch: A gas generator is used to eject the missile from the canister to a certain height before its main engine ignites in the air. This method is considered safer, as a missile malfunction during ignition will not destroy the launch platform. It is commonly used in submarines (for Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles - SLBMs) and some land-based systems like the S-400.

Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) Programme

India’s BMD programme is a strategic initiative by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) to develop a multi-layered defence system against incoming ballistic missiles.

  • Two-Tiered System: The programme is designed to provide a two-layered shield.

    1. Exo-atmospheric Interception (High Altitude): The Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) system is designed to intercept missiles at altitudes of 50-80 km (outside the Earth’s atmosphere). The interceptor missile used is called Pradyumna. It uses long-range tracking radars to detect and track the enemy missile.
    2. Endo-atmospheric Interception (Low Altitude): If the exo-atmospheric interception fails, the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) system acts as the second layer. It is designed to intercept missiles at altitudes of 20-30 km (inside the Earth’s atmosphere). The interceptor missile used is called Ashwin.

  • External Systems: In addition to the indigenous BMD, India has procured the S-400 Triumf air defence system from Russia. It is a highly advanced long-range surface-to-air missile system capable of engaging a wide variety of aerial targets, including aircraft, UAVs, and ballistic and cruise missiles, at ranges of up to 400 km. It complements and strengthens India’s overall air defence network.

Prelims Pointers

  • Algorithmic Bias Example: Microsoft’s Tay chatbot, Amazon’s defunct AI recruiting tool.
  • GDPR: General Data Protection Regulation, enacted by the European Union (EU) in 2018.
  • Right to be Forgotten: Enshrined in Article 17 of the GDPR.
  • Data Colonialism: Term coined by scholars Nick Couldry and Ulises A. Mejias.
  • Pegasus: Spyware developed by the Israeli firm NSO Group.
  • SIPRI: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute; reports on global arms trade.
  • Defence Corridors in India: Located in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
  • Mach Number: Ratio of an object’s speed to the speed of sound.
    • Subsonic: < Mach 1
    • Supersonic: Mach 1-5
    • Hypersonic: > Mach 5
  • IGMDP Missiles (PATNA):
    1. Prithvi: Surface-to-Surface Ballistic Missile
    2. Agni: Surface-to-Surface Ballistic Missile (various ranges)
    3. Trishul: Short-range Surface-to-Air Missile (decommissioned)
    4. Nag: Anti-Tank Guided Missile (“Fire-and-Forget”)
    5. Akash: Medium-range Surface-to-Air Missile
  • Barak-8 Missile: Long-range Surface-to-Air Missile (LRSAM) jointly developed by India (DRDO) and Israel (IAI).
  • Canister Launch: A system where a missile is stored and launched from a sealed container. Agni-V is a canisterised ICBM.
  • Cold Launch: Missile is ejected by a gas generator before its engine ignites. Used for safety, especially in submarines.
  • Indian BMD System: A two-tiered system.
    • Exo-atmospheric interceptor: Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) using Pradyumna missile.
    • Endo-atmospheric interceptor: Advanced Air Defence (AAD) using Ashwin missile.
  • S-400 Triumf: Long-range surface-to-air missile system procured from Russia.

Mains Insights

GS Paper III: Science & Technology / Security

  • AI - Balancing Innovation and Regulation: The rise of AI presents a classic governance dilemma. Over-regulation could stifle innovation and cede technological leadership to other nations, while under-regulation could lead to unchecked biases, job losses, and misuse. A balanced, agile regulatory framework is needed, focusing on ethics, transparency, and accountability without hindering research and development. This relates to the concept of “responsible AI”.
  • Data as a Geopolitical Resource: The debate over data localization vs. free flow of data is central to digital sovereignty. Data is often called the “new oil,” and controlling it is a matter of economic and strategic power. India’s stance on data localization reflects a desire to assert its sovereignty in the digital domain, challenging the dominance of global tech giants, a phenomenon linked to data colonialism. This has direct implications for international relations, trade negotiations, and internal security.
  • Indigenization of Defence - Strategic Autonomy: Indigenization is not just about import substitution; it is a cornerstone of strategic autonomy. Over-reliance on foreign suppliers makes a nation vulnerable to supply chain disruptions, diplomatic pressure, and technology denial regimes. A robust domestic defence industry enhances national security, boosts the economy through job creation (defence corridors), and opens up export opportunities (BrahMos, Pinaka), strengthening India’s role as a net security provider in the region.
  • Challenges in Defence Ecosystem: The slow pace of indigenization points to systemic issues within India’s defence ecosystem. The relationship between DRDO (research), DPSUs (manufacturing), and the private sector needs to be synergistic rather than competitive. Emulating models from countries like Israel, where start-ups and private firms are at the forefront of defence innovation, is crucial. This requires simplifying procurement (DAP), encouraging R&D, and ensuring a level playing field.
  • Missile Programme and Nuclear Doctrine: India’s missile development, particularly the Agni series, is intrinsically linked to its nuclear doctrine of Credible Minimum Deterrence and No First Use (NFU). An ICBM like Agni-V provides second-strike capability against any potential adversary, which is the bedrock of credible deterrence. The development of a Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) system introduces a complex dynamic, as it could be perceived by adversaries as destabilizing, potentially leading to a new arms race. The difference in utility between cruise missiles (for tactical, conventional warfare) and ballistic missiles (for strategic deterrence) is a key aspect of military strategy.

GS Paper II: Governance / International Relations

  • Data Protection and Fundamental Rights: The Cambridge Analytica case showed how personal data could be used to manipulate democratic elections. A strong data protection law (like the DPDP Act, 2023) is essential not just for individual privacy but for safeguarding the integrity of democratic institutions. This connects the Right to Privacy (Puttaswamy judgement) to the health of the democracy itself.

GS Paper IV: Ethics

  • Ethical Dimensions of AI: AI raises profound ethical questions: Who is morally responsible for an AI’s actions? Is it ethical to use AI in judicial sentencing or warfare (autonomous weapons)? How can we ensure AI is used for the good of humanity rather than to entrench power and inequality? These questions require a public discourse involving technologists, ethicists, policymakers, and citizens.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

  1. With reference to the Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2014)

    1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.
    2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.
    3. It can deliver a one-tonne nuclear warhead about 7500 km away. Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

    Answer: (a) 1 only Explanation: Agni-IV is a surface-to-surface missile. It is a two-stage solid-fueled missile. Its range is around 4000 km, not 7500 km.

  2. What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news? (UPSC 2018) (a) An Israeli radar system (b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme (c) An American anti-missile system (d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea

    Answer: (c) An American anti-missile system Explanation: THAAD is an American anti-ballistic missile defense system designed to shoot down short, medium, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles in their terminal phase.

  3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)

    1. The Bar-Koha revolt
    2. The establishment of the state of Israel
    3. The expansion of Roman power
    4. The introduction of Islam The correct chronological order of the above is (a) 3, 1, 4, 2 (b) 2, 4, 3, 1 (c) 1, 3, 2, 4 (d) 4, 2, 1, 3

    Answer: (a) 3, 1, 4, 2 Explanation: This question tests general historical knowledge, but is relevant in the context of news related to countries like Israel (Barak missile, Pegasus spyware). The correct order is Roman expansion, followed by the Bar-Kokhba revolt, the introduction of Islam, and finally the establishment of modern Israel.

  4. With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)

    1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
    2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
    3. GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 only

    Answer: (a) 1 only Explanation: Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is incorrect; satellites in geostationary orbit (launched by GSLV) appear fixed, not those in polar orbits (launched by PSLV). Statement 3 is incorrect; GSLV Mk III is a three-stage vehicle.

  5. The term ‘ACE2’ is talked about in the context of (UPSC 2021) (a) genes introduced in the genetically modified plants (b) development of India’s own satellite navigation system (c) radio collars for wildlife tracking (d) spread of viral diseases

    Answer: (d) spread of viral diseases Explanation: Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the protein that provides the entry point for the coronavirus to hook into and infect a wide range of human cells. This demonstrates how UPSC picks up specific scientific terms from current affairs.

Mains

  1. What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What are the approaches to vaccine development? (UPSC 2022, GS-III) (This question indicates the pattern of asking fundamental concepts in S&T)
  2. Discuss the role of the private sector in the growth and development of the Indian space program. What are the key challenges and opportunities for private participation in this sector? (UPSC 2023, GS-III) (Though on space, this question’s structure on private sector role is highly relevant to the Defence sector)
  3. What is the main task of India’s third moon mission which could not be achieved in its earlier mission? List the countries that have achieved this task. Introduce the subsystems of the spacecraft and explain the role of the ‘Virtual Launch Control Centre’ at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre which contributed to the successful launch of Chandrayaan-3. (UPSC 2023, GS-III) (This shows the depth of technical knowledge expected from indigenous technology programs, similar to what can be asked about IGMDP or BMD)
  4. What is artificial intelligence (AI)? How does it work? What are the ethical concerns associated with AI? How can these concerns be addressed? (UPSC 2020, GS-IV) (Directly addresses the ethical dimensions of AI)
  5. Discuss the significance of the “Make in India” initiative for the defence sector in India. What are the challenges in its implementation? (UPSC 2019, GS-III) (Directly related to the topic of indigenization of defence technology)

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