GS Notes

19. Science and Technology Notes 15

28 min read

Elaborate Notes

Ships and Submarines

A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It is distinct from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The development of modern submarines was a pivotal moment in naval warfare, a concept explored by figures like Cornelius Drebbel in the 17th century and brought to military fruition by inventors like John Philip Holland and Simon Lake in the late 19th century.

Classification based on Power Source:

1. Diesel-Electric Submarines (SSK): These are conventional submarines that use diesel engines for surface travel and for charging large batteries. When submerged, they run on electric motors powered by these batteries, as diesel engines require air for combustion.

  • Historical Context & Indian Acquisitions:
    • Phase I (Soviet/Russian Imports): Post-independence, India initially relied on the UK for its naval fleet. The strategic shift towards the Soviet Union in the 1960s led to the induction of the first submarines. The Foxtrot-class submarines were the first, followed by the more advanced Kilo-class submarines (designated Sindhughosh-class in India) from the 1980s. Notable examples include INS Sindhughosh (S55), INS Sindhurashtra (S65), and INS Sindhuvijay (S62). These formed the backbone of India’s submarine fleet for decades.
    • Phase II (Project 75 - Indigenous Construction): To bolster its ageing fleet and promote indigenisation, the Indian Navy initiated the 30-Year Submarine Building Plan in 1999. Project 75 is a key component of this plan. A deal worth USD 3.75 billion was signed in 2005 between the French naval group DCNS (now Naval Group) and India’s Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL) for the construction of six Scorpène-class submarines in India.
      • The six submarines under this project are: INS Kalvari (S21), INS Khanderi (S22), INS Karanj (S23), INS Vela (S24), INS Vagir (S25), and INS Vagsheer (S26).
      • Features: These are advanced attack submarines known for their stealth capabilities. They possess a very low acoustic signature (low noise), making them difficult to detect by enemy SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) systems. They are equipped with tube-launched MBDA SM-39 Exocet anti-ship missiles and DRDO-developed Varunastra heavyweight torpedoes.
  • Air-Independent Propulsion (AIP): A major limitation of conventional submarines is the need to surface or snorkel frequently to run diesel engines and recharge batteries, which increases their vulnerability. AIP technology allows a submarine to remain submerged for longer durations.
    • DRDO’s AIP System: India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has developed an indigenous fuel cell-based AIP system. This system uses the electrolysis of water to generate hydrogen, which is then used in fuel cells to generate electricity, with water as the only by-product. This system is planned to be retrofitted onto the Kalvari-class submarines during their refits. This development is a significant step towards strategic autonomy, as noted by strategic affairs analyst Dr. C. Raja Mohan.

2. Nuclear-Powered Submarines: These submarines employ a nuclear reactor to generate heat, which creates high-pressure steam to spin turbines that power the propeller and generate electricity.

  • Advantages:
    • Endurance: They can stay submerged for months, limited only by the crew’s food and supplies. They do not need to refuel for up to 25-30 years.
    • Speed and Performance: They can travel at high speeds for sustained periods, unlike diesel-electric submarines whose battery life depletes rapidly at high speeds.
  • Indian Context:
    • INS Arihant (S2): India’s first indigenously developed nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), launched in 2009 and commissioned in 2016. It is powered by an 83 MW pressurised water reactor (PWR). The successful development of INS Arihant was a landmark achievement for Indian science and engineering, placing India in an elite club of nations with this capability.
    • Nuclear Triad: The commissioning of INS Arihant, armed with nuclear-tipped Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) like the K-15 Sagarika and the longer-range K-4, completed India’s nuclear triad. A nuclear triad refers to the capability to launch nuclear weapons from land (e.g., Agni missiles), air (e.g., Sukhoi-30 MKI, Rafale), and sea (INS Arihant). This provides a credible second-strike capability, which is the cornerstone of India’s ‘No First Use’ nuclear doctrine, as it guarantees a devastating retaliatory strike even if the country’s land and air-based assets are destroyed in a first strike.
    • Other Nuclear Submarines: India has also leased nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSNs) from Russia to train crews and gain operational experience, such as INS Chakra (an Akula-class submarine).

Torpedoes

A torpedo is a self-propelled underwater weapon with an explosive warhead, designed to detonate on contact with or in proximity to a target.

  • Varunastra: It is an indigenously designed and developed ship-launched, heavyweight, electrically-propelled anti-submarine torpedo. Developed by the Naval Science and Technological Laboratory (NSTL) of the DRDO for the Indian Navy, it is capable of targeting quiet submarines in both deep and shallow waters. It is a significant achievement under the ‘Make in India’ initiative.
  • Maareech Advanced Torpedo Defence System (ATDS): This is an indigenous anti-torpedo system developed by DRDO’s NSTL and Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL). It is a ‘soft-kill’ system that detects, locates, and neutralises incoming torpedoes. The system employs towed and expendable decoys to divert the homing torpedoes away from the target ship. Its induction enhances the survivability of naval platforms against underwater attacks.

Ships

1. Destroyers: These are large, fast, and heavily armed warships designed for multi-mission roles, including anti-air, anti-submarine, and anti-surface warfare. They often serve as the primary escorts for larger vessels like aircraft carriers. * Project 15B (Visakhapatnam-class): These are stealth guided-missile destroyers built by Mazagon Dock Limited. They are a follow-on to the Kolkata-class (Project 15A). Ships in this class include INS Visakhapatnam, INS Mormugao, INS Imphal, and INS Surat. They are equipped with the Barak-8 surface-to-air missile and BrahMos supersonic cruise missile, making them one of the most potent warships in the world.

2. Frigates: Smaller and faster than destroyers, frigates are versatile warships used for escort duties, anti-submarine warfare, and patrolling. * Shivalik-class (Project 17): These are the first stealth frigates built in India. Examples include INS Shivalik, INS Satpura, and INS Sahyadri. * Talwar-class: These are modified Krivak III-class frigates built in Russia for the Indian Navy. Examples include INS Talwar, INS Trishul, and INS Tabar.

3. Corvettes: These are the smallest class of surface combatants in a naval fleet. They are agile and primarily used for coastal patrol, anti-submarine warfare in littoral zones, and escorting convoys. * Kamorta-class (Project 28): These are indigenous anti-submarine warfare (ASW) corvettes built by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE), Kolkata. They have high indigenous content and significant stealth features. Examples include INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS Kiltan, and INS Kavaratti.

4. Aircraft Carriers: These are capital ships that serve as mobile airbases, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. As strategic analyst Ashley J. Tellis has argued, aircraft carriers are crucial for power projection and sea control. * INS Vikramaditya: A modified Kiev-class aircraft carrier acquired from Russia and commissioned in 2013. It is currently the Indian Navy’s flagship. * INS Vikrant (IAC-1): India’s first indigenously designed and built aircraft carrier, constructed by Cochin Shipyard Limited and commissioned in 2022. It is named after India’s first aircraft carrier, INS Vikrant (R11), which played a crucial role in the 1971 Indo-Pak war. * Specifications: 262 meters long, displacement of around 45,000 tonnes, top speed of 28 knots, and can operate an air wing of about 30 aircraft, including MiG-29K fighter jets and helicopters. It has over 75% indigenous content. * Aircraft Launch and Recovery Systems: * STOBAR (Short Take-Off But Arrested Recovery): Used on INS Vikrant and INS Vikramaditya. Aircraft take off using a ski-jump ramp at the front of the deck, which helps them gain altitude. For landing, they use an arrester wire system. * CATOBAR (Catapult Assisted Take-Off But Arrested Recovery): This system uses a catapult to launch aircraft, allowing them to take off with a heavier payload (more fuel and weapons). The catapult can be steam-powered or an advanced Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS), which is more efficient and powerful. Future Indian aircraft carriers are expected to incorporate EMALS. * Arrested Recovery: In both systems, landing aircraft use a tailhook to catch one of several high-strength steel wires stretched across the deck, bringing the aircraft to a rapid stop.

Stealth Technology

Stealth technology, also known as low-observable technology, is a sub-discipline of military tactics and electronic countermeasures which covers a range of methods used to make personnel and materiel less visible to radar, infrared, sonar, and other detection methods.

  • Principles:
    • Radar: Radar works by transmitting electromagnetic waves and detecting the echoes that return from objects. The size, shape, and material of the object determine its Radar Cross-Section (RCS), or how “visible” it is to radar.
    • Sonar: Sonar operates on a similar principle but uses sound waves in water. The key is to reduce the acoustic signature (noise) of a vessel.
  • Methods of Achieving Stealth:
    • Shaping: Designing the aircraft or ship with flat surfaces and sharp, angled edges (faceting) to reflect radar waves away from the radar receiver, rather than back to it. The iconic Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk (retired in 2008) was a prime example of this design philosophy.
    • Radar-Absorbent Materials (RAM): The surface of the vehicle is coated with special paints or materials made of ferromagnetic particles or crystalline structures that absorb the energy of radar waves, converting it into heat and minimizing reflection. The Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit bomber combines both shaping and advanced RAM.
    • Electronic Jamming: Actively broadcasting radio signals to interfere with enemy radar systems. This ‘drowns out’ the reflected signal with noise, preventing the radar from obtaining a clear lock on the target.

Aircraft

Generations of Fighter Aircraft: The classification into generations is an unofficial framework popularised by aviation analysts since the 1990s to delineate major leaps in fighter jet technology.

GenerationKey FeaturesExamples
1st (1940s-50s)Subsonic, cannons, unguided bombsF-86 Sabre, MiG-15
2nd (1950s-60s)Supersonic, early air-to-air missiles, basic radarF-104 Starfighter, MiG-21
3rd (1960s-70s)Advanced avionics, multirole capability, guided missilesF-4 Phantom II, Mirage III
4th (1970s-2005)Fly-by-wire, high maneuverability, look-down/shoot-down radarF-16, Su-30, Mirage 2000, Rafale (4.5)
5th (2005-present)All-aspect stealth, supercruise, advanced sensor fusionF-22 Raptor, F-35 Lightning II

Combat Aircraft in the Indian Air Force (IAF):

  • Russian Origin: Sukhoi Su-30MKI (air superiority fighter), MiG-29 (air defence), MiG-21 (interceptor, being phased out).
  • French Origin: Dassault Mirage 2000 (multirole), Dassault Rafale (multirole, 4.5 generation).
  • UK/European Origin: SEPECAT Jaguar (deep penetration strike aircraft).
  • Indigenous:
    • HAL Tejas (LCA): A 4th-generation, single-engine, lightweight, supersonic, multirole fighter aircraft developed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) in collaboration with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
      • Features: It is one of the world’s smallest and lightest supersonic fighters. It incorporates a delta-wing design, fly-by-wire flight control, and composite materials for a lighter airframe. It can carry a range of air-to-air and air-to-surface precision-guided weapons. It possesses air-to-air refuelling capability, a maximum payload of 4,000 kg, and a top speed of approximately Mach 1.8.

Airborne Early Warning and Control System (AEW&C): An AEW&C system is a “force multiplier” that uses a powerful radar mounted on an aircraft to detect enemy aircraft, ships, and missiles at long ranges. It provides a 360-degree view of the battlespace and directs friendly fighter aircraft to intercept threats.

  • Indian Systems:
    • Phalcon AWACS: Three systems using the Israeli EL/W-2090 radar mounted on a Russian Ilyushin Il-76 platform.
    • Netra AEW&C: An indigenous system developed by DRDO, using a radar mounted on a Brazilian Embraer ERJ 145 aircraft. Two are in service, with plans for more advanced versions on larger platforms.

1. Directed-Energy Weapons (DEW): DEWs damage targets using highly focused energy, such as lasers, microwaves, or particle beams, rather than a physical projectile.

  • DRDO’s KALI (Kilo Ampere Linear Injector): An ongoing Indian project aimed at developing a linear electron accelerator. While often portrayed as a beam weapon, its primary stated purpose is for industrial and research applications, and potentially as a source for high-power microwaves that could be used to disable the electronic circuits of incoming missiles or aircraft. Its development remains classified.

2. Weaponization of Space: This involves placing weapons in outer space or creating weapons that transit through space to attack targets on Earth (e.g., Fractional Orbital Bombardment Systems), as well as developing anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons.

  • International Law: The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 is the foundational legal framework. It prohibits placing nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies. However, it does not explicitly ban conventional weapons in space or ground-based ASAT weapons.
  • Recent Developments: The US, China, and Russia have all demonstrated ASAT capabilities. In 2019, India successfully tested its own ASAT missile under Mission Shakti, demonstrating its capability to protect its space assets. There is a growing international debate, with India advocating for new norms to prevent an arms race in outer space, emphasizing the need to update the 1967 treaty.

3. Hypersonic Vehicles: These are vehicles that travel at speeds of Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound) or faster within the atmosphere.

  • Types:
    • Hypersonic Glide Vehicles (HGVs): Launched from a rocket before gliding to a target.
    • Hypersonic Cruise Missiles: Powered by air-breathing engines (scramjets) during their entire flight.
  • Strategic Advantage: Their high speed and maneuverability make them extremely difficult for current missile defence systems to track and intercept.
  • Challenges:
    • Atmospheric Drag: Intense friction requires a highly aerodynamic design.
    • Extreme Heat: Air friction generates temperatures exceeding 2,000°C, requiring advanced heat-resistant materials.
    • Propulsion: Requires advanced air-breathing engines like scramjets.
  • Indian Efforts: DRDO has successfully tested its Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV), powered by a scramjet engine, achieving a crucial milestone in this technology.

4. Air-Breathing Engines: These engines take in air from the atmosphere to use as an oxidizer for combustion, unlike rockets which carry their own oxidizer.

  • Turbojet/Turbofan Engine: Uses a compressor (rotating blades) to compress incoming air before combustion. Efficient from zero speed up to Mach 3. Used in most conventional aircraft.
  • Ramjet: A simpler design with no moving parts. It uses the vehicle’s high forward speed to “ram” and compress air. It cannot operate at zero speed and must be accelerated to supersonic speeds (around Mach 3) by another means (like a rocket booster) before it can function. It is efficient up to about Mach 6.
  • Scramjet (Supersonic Combustion Ramjet): An evolution of the ramjet where airflow through the entire engine remains supersonic. By avoiding the need to slow the air to subsonic speeds for combustion, scramjets can operate efficiently at hypersonic speeds (theoretically up to Mach 15). This is the key technology for sustained hypersonic flight.

Prelims Pointers

  • Submarine Types: Diesel-Electric (SSK) and Nuclear-Powered (SSN for attack, SSBN for ballistic missiles).
  • Project 75: Construction of six Scorpène-class submarines by Mazagon Dock Limited (MDL) with French collaboration.
  • Scorpène-class Submarines: INS Kalvari, Khanderi, Karanj, Vela, Vagir, Vagsheer.
  • AIP Technology: Air-Independent Propulsion; allows non-nuclear submarines to stay submerged longer. DRDO has developed a fuel cell-based AIP system.
  • INS Arihant: India’s first indigenous nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN).
  • Nuclear Triad: The capability to launch nuclear weapons from Land, Air, and Sea.
  • SONAR: Sound Navigation and Ranging.
  • Varunastra: Indigenous heavyweight anti-submarine torpedo.
  • Maareech: Indigenous Advanced Torpedo Defence System (ATDS).
  • Project 15B: Visakhapatnam-class stealth guided-missile destroyers.
  • Project 17: Shivalik-class indigenous stealth frigates.
  • Project 28: Kamorta-class indigenous anti-submarine corvettes.
  • Indigenous Aircraft Carrier: INS Vikrant (IAC-1).
  • STOBAR: Short Take-Off But Arrested Recovery (uses a ski-jump). Used on INS Vikrant and Vikramaditya.
  • CATOBAR: Catapult Assisted Take-Off But Arrested Recovery (uses a catapult, e.g., EMALS).
  • LCA Tejas: Indigenous 4th-gen Light Combat Aircraft developed by HAL and ADA.
  • AEW&C Systems:
    1. Phalcon: Israeli radar on a Russian IL-76 platform.
    2. Netra: Indigenous DRDO radar on a Brazilian Embraer platform.
  • DEW: Directed-Energy Weapon. DRDO’s project is KALI (Kilo Ampere Linear Injector).
  • Mission Shakti: India’s Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile test conducted in 2019.
  • Outer Space Treaty: Signed in 1967, it governs activities in space and prohibits WMDs in orbit.
  • Hypersonic Speed: Mach 5 and above.
  • Air-Breathing Engines:
    1. Ramjet: Needs initial supersonic speed to start; combustion is subsonic.
    2. Scramjet: Combustion occurs at supersonic speeds; for hypersonic flight.
  • HSTDV: Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle, developed by DRDO.

Mains Insights

1. Indigenisation of Defence Technology (GS Paper 3: Science & Technology, Security)

  • Significance:
    • Strategic Autonomy: Reduces dependence on foreign suppliers, insulating India from geopolitical pressures and sanctions. The development of INS Arihant and INS Vikrant are prime examples.
    • Economic Benefits: Creates a domestic defence industrial base, fosters innovation, generates employment, and saves foreign exchange. It aligns with the ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ vision.
    • Customisation: Indigenous platforms can be tailored to meet India’s specific geographical and strategic requirements.
  • Challenges:
    • Technological Gaps: Critical components like jet engines and advanced sensors are still largely imported.
    • Time and Cost Overruns: Projects like the LCA Tejas and Arjun MBT have faced significant delays and budget escalations, impacting military preparedness.
    • Lack of Private Sector Participation: While improving, the private sector’s role has historically been limited, slowing down innovation and production capacity.
    • Bureaucratic Hurdles: Complex procurement processes and lack of a long-term integrated perspective can hinder progress.
  • Way Forward:
    • Encourage public-private partnerships (PPP) and streamline procurement processes through initiatives like the Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP).
    • Invest heavily in R&D and create an ecosystem that nurtures defence start-ups and innovation.
    • Focus on developing critical technologies domestically through targeted missions.

2. India’s Nuclear Triad and Deterrence Policy (GS Paper 3: Security)

  • Cause-Effect Relationship: India’s ‘No First Use’ (NFU) policy necessitates a credible and survivable second-strike capability. The sea-based leg of the triad, embodied by SSBNs like INS Arihant, is the most survivable element. It can remain hidden in the vastness of the ocean, ensuring that even if land and air-based assets are destroyed in a surprise attack, India can launch a devastating retaliatory strike.
  • Strategic Importance:
    • Credible Minimum Deterrence: The triad enhances the credibility of India’s nuclear deterrent against nuclear-armed adversaries, particularly China and Pakistan.
    • Regional Stability: A stable and assured second-strike capability reduces the incentive for a pre-emptive nuclear strike by an adversary, thus contributing to strategic stability in a volatile region.
  • Debate: Some strategic thinkers have occasionally questioned the rigidity of the NFU policy in the face of evolving threats. However, the official stance remains unchanged, and strengthening the triad, especially the sea-based leg, is seen as the most effective way to uphold the credibility of the NFU doctrine.

3. The Changing Character of Modern Warfare (GS Paper 3: Security)

  • Emerging Domains: Modern warfare is no longer confined to land, sea, and air. Space and cyberspace have become critical domains. Furthermore, technologies like AI, hypersonic weapons, and DEWs are blurring the lines between conventional and unconventional conflict.
  • Implications for India:
    • Vulnerability: India’s critical infrastructure, including communication and financial networks, is vulnerable to cyber-attacks. Its space assets are vital for communication, navigation (NavIC), and surveillance.
    • Need for Doctrinal Shift: India needs to develop integrated doctrines that account for these new technologies. The creation of the Defence Cyber Agency, Defence Space Agency, and a Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) are steps in the right direction.
    • Investment and Preparedness: A significant and sustained investment in R&D for hypersonic, DEWs, and cyber defence is crucial. India cannot afford to be left behind in this technological race. The success of Mission Shakti was a deterrent signal, but sustained efforts are needed to secure space assets.

4. Maritime Security and the Indian Navy’s Role (GS Paper 2: IR; GS Paper 3: Security)

  • Geo-strategic Context: The Indian Ocean Region (IOR) is a hub of global trade and energy flows. China’s increasing naval presence in the IOR (the ‘String of Pearls’ strategy) and non-traditional threats like piracy and maritime terrorism pose significant challenges.
  • Navy’s Role as a ‘Net Security Provider’: India envisions its navy as a provider of security for the entire region.
    • Power Projection: Aircraft carriers like INS Vikrant, supported by destroyers and frigates, are central to projecting power and ensuring sea control across the IOR.
    • Sea-Lane Protection: Naval assets are crucial for protecting vital Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs).
    • Diplomatic Tool: Naval exercises with friendly nations (e.g., MALABAR with Quad partners) and port calls are key instruments of India’s maritime and foreign policy. The SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) vision underscores this role.

Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1. With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (2018)

  1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
  2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
  3. GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 only

Answer: (a) Explanation: Statement 1 is correct. PSLVs are generally used for sun-synchronous/polar orbits (Earth observation), while GSLVs are used for geostationary orbits (communication satellites). Statement 2 is incorrect; this describes geostationary satellites, which are launched by GSLVs, not PSLV. Statement 3 is incorrect; GSLV Mk III is a three-stage vehicle (Solid, Liquid, Cryogenic).

2. What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news? (2018) (a) An Israeli radar system (b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme (c) An American anti-missile system (d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea.

Answer: (c) Explanation: THAAD is an advanced American anti-ballistic missile defense system designed to shoot down short, medium, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles in their terminal phase.

3. Consider the following statements: (2019)

  1. The Bar-Kokhba revolt was one of the most significant Jewish uprisings against the Roman Empire.
  2. The Treaty of Sèvres led to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
  3. The city of Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (d) Explanation: While not directly from this topic, this question shows UPSC’s tendency to ask about historical military events. All statements are historically correct facts. Bar-Kokhba revolt happened in 2nd century AD. The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) partitioned the Ottoman Empire. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 is a landmark event.

4. Consider the following pairs: (2020) (Terms sometimes seen in news) - (Context/Topic)

  1. Belle II experiment - Artificial Intelligence
  2. Blockchain technology - Digital/Cryptocurrency
  3. CRISPR-Cas9 - Particle Physics Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) Explanation: Belle II is a particle physics experiment. CRISPR-Cas9 is a gene-editing technology. Only the Blockchain technology pairing is correct. This shows the need for clarity on scientific terms.

5. With reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2014 - but relevant in principle)

  1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.
  2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.
  3. It can deliver a one-tonne nuclear warhead about 7500 km away. Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a) Explanation: Agni-IV is a surface-to-surface missile. It is a two-stage solid-fuelled missile, not liquid. Its range is around 4000 km, not 7500 km.

(Note: Direct questions on specific ships/submarines are less frequent in Prelims, but they often appear as part of broader questions on indigenisation, missile technology, or defence policy.)

Mains

1. What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (2020)

Answer Framework: Introduction: Briefly explain the historical context of India’s defence relationship with Russia (historically the primary supplier) and the recent strategic pivot towards the US, especially in the post-Cold War era. Significance of Indo-US Defence Deals:

  • Access to Advanced Technology: US offers cutting-edge technology (e.g., P-8I maritime patrol aircraft, C-17 and C-130J transport aircraft) which enhances India’s surveillance and operational capabilities.
  • Interoperability: Joint exercises (like Malabar) and common platforms with the US and its allies (like Japan, Australia) enhance interoperability, crucial for coordinated action in the Indo-Pacific.
  • Strategic Alignment: Deepening defence ties signifies a strategic convergence against common threats, particularly an assertive China, strengthening the Quad.
  • Counter-terrorism and Intelligence Sharing: Cooperation extends beyond hardware to crucial intelligence sharing. Significance of Indo-Russian Defence Deals:
  • Time-Tested Partnership: Russia has been a reliable partner, providing critical platforms like nuclear submarines (on lease), Su-30MKI fighters, and the S-400 air defence system.
  • Willingness to Share Technology: Russia has been more willing to offer technology transfers and joint development projects (e.g., BrahMos).
  • Cost-Effectiveness and Reliability: Russian equipment is often more affordable and has proven its reliability. Impact on Indo-Pacific Stability:
  • Balancing China: A stronger India, equipped with advanced technology from both partners, acts as a significant counter-balance to China’s growing military power, contributing to regional stability.
  • Dilemma of a ‘Two-Front’ Challenge: Maintaining a balance is critical. While US partnership is key for the maritime domain (Indo-Pacific), Russian systems like the S-400 are vital for the continental threat from China and Pakistan.
  • Strategic Autonomy: Relying on both helps India maintain its strategic autonomy, avoiding over-dependence on any single power. Conclusion: Conclude by stating that a balanced approach, leveraging the strengths of both partnerships, is India’s best strategy. While US deals are crucial for maritime security and high-tech interoperability in the Indo-Pacific, the enduring relationship with Russia provides critical defence capabilities and reinforces India’s multi-aligned foreign policy.

2. India’s proximity to two of the world’s biggest illicit opium-growing states has enhanced her internal security concerns. Explain the linkages between drug trafficking and other illicit activities such as gunrunning, money laundering and human trafficking. What counter-measures should be taken to prevent the same? (2018)

Answer Framework: Introduction: Introduce the concept of the ‘Golden Crescent’ (Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran) to India’s west and the ‘Golden Triangle’ (Myanmar, Laos, Thailand) to its east, placing India in a vulnerable position. Linkages between Drug Trafficking and Other Illicit Activities:

  • Narco-Terrorism: Explain how terrorist groups use drug money to finance their operations, procure arms (gunrunning), and sustain their networks. Cite examples from Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir.
  • Money Laundering: The vast profits from the drug trade need to be legitimised. This is done through complex financial transactions (hawala), real estate, and other businesses, which corrupts the formal economy.
  • Human Trafficking: Drug routes are often used for human trafficking. Vulnerable individuals, often addicts, are coerced into acting as mules or are trafficked for exploitation.
  • Arms Smuggling: The same networks and routes used for smuggling drugs are used for smuggling small arms and explosives, posing a direct threat to national security. Counter-Measures:
  • Law Enforcement & Border Management: Strengthen surveillance on borders using technology (drones, sensors) and enhance coordination between agencies like BSF, NCB, DRI, and state police.
  • Financial Intelligence: Strengthen the functioning of the Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) and Enforcement Directorate (ED) to track and choke the flow of illicit money.
  • International Cooperation: Enhance intelligence sharing and joint operations with neighboring countries and international bodies like the UNODC.
  • Social and Health Measures: Address the demand side through de-addiction and rehabilitation programs. Run awareness campaigns to educate the youth about the dangers of drug abuse.
  • Legal Framework: Ensure strict implementation and regular updation of laws like the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act. Conclusion: Conclude that a multi-pronged strategy involving security, economic, social, and diplomatic efforts is required to tackle this complex threat to India’s internal security.

3. What is the importance of ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan’ in the context of the defence sector in India? Discuss the challenges and the measures taken by the government to promote indigenisation. (Fictional, based on current trends)

Answer Framework: Introduction: Define ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ in the defence context as achieving self-reliance in the design, development, and manufacturing of defence equipment. Importance of Self-Reliance in Defence:

  • Reduces Import Bill: India is one of the world’s largest arms importers; indigenisation saves precious foreign exchange.
  • Boosts Economy: Creates a robust defence industrial ecosystem, spurs technological innovation, and generates skilled employment.
  • Enhances National Security: Eliminates vulnerabilities associated with dependence on foreign suppliers during conflicts and ensures a reliable supply chain.
  • Export Potential: Positions India as a net exporter of defence equipment, enhancing its geopolitical influence. Challenges:
  • Long Gestation Periods: Defence projects are complex and take years to mature, leading to cost and time overruns.
  • Lack of Critical Technology: India still relies on imports for critical components like engines for fighter jets and tanks.
  • Inadequate R&D Funding: Public and private investment in defence R&D is lower compared to global standards.
  • Dominance of Defence PSUs: Historically, DPSUs have had a monopoly, often leading to inefficiency and a lack of competition. Government Measures:
  • Policy Reforms: Introduction of the Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020 with a focus on ‘Buy (Indian-IDDM)‘.
  • FDI Liberalisation: FDI limit in the defence sector raised to 74% through the automatic route.
  • Positive Indigenisation Lists: The government has notified lists of items that will not be imported and must be procured from domestic sources.
  • Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX): A scheme to fund and support start-ups and MSMEs in the defence sector.
  • Corporatisation of Ordnance Factory Board (OFB): To improve efficiency and accountability. Conclusion: Conclude that while the path to ‘Atmanirbharta’ in defence is challenging, the government’s concerted policy push has created a positive momentum. Sustained effort in R&D, private sector integration, and streamlined procurement is key to achieving this vital strategic goal.

4. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 is seen as inadequate in dealing with the emerging threats related to the militarisation and weaponisation of space. Critically analyse. (Fictional, based on current trends)

Answer Framework: Introduction: Briefly describe the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 as the cornerstone of international space law, which declared space as a global commons for peaceful purposes. Provisions of the Treaty:

  • Bans placing WMDs in orbit or on celestial bodies.
  • Stipulates that space exploration should be for the benefit of all countries.
  • Prohibits claims of national sovereignty over outer space or celestial bodies. Inadequacies and Emerging Threats:
  • Loophole on Conventional Weapons: The treaty does not explicitly ban the placement of conventional weapons in space.
  • Rise of ASAT Weapons: The treaty is silent on ground-based Anti-Satellite (ASAT) weapons, which countries like the US, Russia, China, and India have tested. These tests create dangerous space debris.
  • Dual-Use Technologies: Many modern space technologies (e.g., satellite servicing, debris removal) can be repurposed for military ends, creating ambiguity and suspicion.
  • Private Sector Role: The treaty was framed when only nations were space actors. Today, the large-scale involvement of private companies (like SpaceX) adds a new layer of complexity that the treaty doesn’t address.
  • Lack of Verification Mechanism: There is no robust international body to verify compliance or enforce the treaty’s provisions. Analysis and Way Forward:
  • A new international treaty or a protocol to the existing treaty is needed to address these gaps.
  • India, along with other like-minded nations, can advocate for a Code of Conduct or a legally binding instrument to prevent an arms race in outer space (PAROS).
  • Confidence-building measures, such as data sharing on space objects and “rules of the road” for space activities, are essential. Conclusion: Conclude that while the 1967 Treaty laid a vital foundation for peaceful space exploration, the technological and geopolitical landscape has changed drastically. A renewed global diplomatic effort is urgently needed to create a new legal framework that prevents space from becoming the next frontier of conflict.

5. How is S-400 air defence system technically superior to any other system presently available in the world? (2021)

Answer Framework: Introduction: Introduce the S-400 ‘Triumf’ as a Russian-made, next-generation mobile surface-to-air missile (SAM) system capable of engaging a wide variety of aerial threats. Technical Superiority of S-400:

  • Multi-Layered Defence: The system uses a combination of different missiles with varying ranges, creating a layered and tiered air defence network. It can engage targets from very short range (40 km) to very long range (400 km) and at altitudes from 10 meters to 30 km.
  • Versatility of Targets: It is designed to simultaneously track and destroy a wide array of targets, including fighter jets, bombers, surveillance aircraft, cruise missiles, and even ballistic missiles. It is particularly effective against stealth aircraft like the F-35.
  • Advanced Radar System: It features a powerful radar system that can track up to 300 targets and engage up to 36 of them simultaneously. Its anti-jamming capabilities make it resilient to electronic countermeasures.
  • High Mobility and Rapid Deployment: The entire system is mounted on mobile vehicles, allowing it to be deployed quickly and making it difficult for the enemy to locate and destroy. Comparison with Other Systems:
  • US THAAD: THAAD is primarily designed to counter ballistic missiles at high altitudes and has a “hit-to-kill” mechanism. S-400 is more versatile, capable of targeting a broader range of aerial threats, including aircraft.
  • US Patriot (PAC-3): The Patriot system has a shorter range (around 160 km) compared to the S-400’s 400 km. The S-400’s radar and multi-target engagement capability are also considered superior. Strategic Implications for India:
  • The S-400 provides a significant boost to India’s air defence capabilities, creating a formidable “air defence bubble” against threats from both China and Pakistan. Conclusion: Conclude that the S-400’s superiority lies in its unique combination of long-range, multi-layered defence, versatility against diverse targets, and robust radar capabilities, making it a strategic game-changer in modern air defence.

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