1.4 - Society Notes 01

Elaborate Notes

Understanding Indian Society: An Introduction

The study of Indian society for civil services is designed to sensitize officials to the intricate nuances and contemporary discourses shaping India. This awareness is fundamental for formulating effective, inclusive policies and ensuring Good Governance. An effective approach requires understanding foundational terminologies, historical evolution, and the dynamic interplay of various social forces.

Terminologies and Policies for Tribal Communities

The approach towards tribal communities in post-independence India was a subject of intense debate, leading to three distinct policy perspectives: Isolation, Assimilation, and Integration.

• Isolation:

  • This policy was most famously advocated by the British anthropologist and civil servant, Verrier Elwin (1902-1964). In his early work, particularly his ethnographic studies on the Baiga tribe, he argued that contact with mainstream Hindu society and modern administration was corrupting and destructive to tribal life, culture, and identity.
  • He proposed the creation of ‘National Parks’ or reserved areas where tribes could live undisturbed, allowing them to conserve and preserve their unique cultural practices, languages, and social institutions.
  • This policy was rooted in the colonial administrative practice of creating ‘Excluded’ and ‘Partially Excluded’ Areas under the Government of India Act, 1935, which aimed to protect tribes from exploitation by outsiders but also kept them segregated.
  • Criticism: This approach was criticized for being a ‘museum’ or ‘zoo’ approach, which would condemn tribal communities to perpetual backwardness and deny them the benefits of development and modern education.

• Assimilation:

  • This policy was championed by the eminent sociologist G.S. Ghurye (1893-1983). In his influential work, “The Scheduled Tribes” (originally published as “The Aborigines - So-called - and their Future” in 1943), Ghurye argued that most tribal communities were not distinct from the Hindu fold but were rather “imperfectly integrated segments of Hindu society” or “backward Hindus.”
  • Assimilation, in this context, is a process where a minority or subordinate cultural group is absorbed into the dominant culture, leading to the loss of its distinct identity. The focus is on cultural homogenization to ensure social cohesion.
  • Ghurye advocated for the complete assimilation of tribes into mainstream Hindu culture as a solution to their socio-economic problems.
  • Example: The push for a uniform civil code, such as the Hindu Code Bills (enacted in the 1950s), which codified and reformed personal laws for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs, can be seen as an assimilative measure as it applied a standardized legal framework to diverse groups.
  • Criticism: This policy is criticized for being culturally chauvinistic and for disregarding the unique identity, history, and rights of tribal communities. It is often seen as a form of cultural imperialism.

• Integration:

  • This became the official policy of the Government of India, representing a middle path between the extremes of isolation and assimilation. It was articulated by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
  • Integration is a process of incorporation where different cultural groups become part of the mainstream society while retaining their core cultural identities. It promotes unity in diversity.
  • Nehru’s vision was that ‘Tribals should progress but in their own way.’ This philosophy was enshrined in the Tribal Panchsheel, a five-point policy framework for tribal development:
    1. People should develop along the lines of their own genius and we should avoid imposing anything on them.
    2. Tribal rights in land and forests should be respected.
    3. We should try to train and build up a team of their own people to do the work of administration and development.
    4. We should not over-administer these areas or overwhelm them with a multiplicity of schemes.
    5. We should judge results, not by statistics or the amount of money spent, but by the quality of human character that is evolved.
  • This policy is reflected in the special provisions for tribal communities in the Indian Constitution, such as the Fifth and Sixth Schedules.

Salient Features of Indian Society

Indian society is characterized by its immense complexity and heterogeneity. Key features include:

• Caste System: A hierarchical social stratification system based on ascription (birth). Despite constitutional abolition of untouchability and prohibition of discrimination, caste continues to influence social relations, economic opportunities, and political dynamics.
• Unity in Diversity: This is a hallmark feature.
  • Linguistic Diversity: India is home to hundreds of languages and thousands of dialects, belonging to several language families (Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman). This diversity can sometimes lead to conflicts like linguistic chauvinism (e.g., anti-Hindi agitations).
  • Religious Diversity: Birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and a home to a large population of Muslims, Christians, and other faiths. Challenges include communalism and religious fundamentalism.
  • Ethnic and Racial Diversity: The people of India are a mix of various ethnic and racial groups. Conflicts based on ethnic identity, often termed ethno-nationalism, are witnessed, particularly in Northeast India.
  • Regional Diversity: Differences in geography, climate, culture, and economy across regions can foster a sense of regional identity, which, when it becomes aggressive, leads to regionalism.
• Patriarchy: A social system where men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. In India, patriarchy is not monolithic; its manifestations vary across regions, castes, and communities, making it a pervasive and complex salient feature.

Multiculturalism vs. Pluralism

• Multiculturalism: Refers to the peaceful coexistence of diverse cultures within a single society. It encourages communities to celebrate, retain, and transmit their unique cultures across generations.
  • Melting Pot Model: Associated primarily with the American ideal, this model suggests that immigrant cultures should “melt” together, shedding their original identities to form a new, homogenous national culture. This is a form of assimilation.
  • Salad Bowl Model: This metaphor describes a heterogeneous society where different cultures are like ingredients in a salad. They are mixed together but retain their individual flavors and identities, contributing to the richness of the whole. This model is closer to the idea of integration and is often used to describe societies like Canada or India.
• Pluralism: While often used synonymously with multiculturalism, there is a subtle distinction. In pluralism, smaller groups within a larger society maintain their unique cultural identities, and their values are accepted by the dominant culture, provided they are consistent with the laws and values of the wider society. The key difference is the implicit existence and influence of a ‘dominant culture’ that sets the terms of coexistence. India is often described as a pluralistic society where the broader constitutional and civic framework acts as the overarching structure.

Cultural Lag

• This concept was introduced by the American sociologist William F. Ogburn in his book “Social Change with Respect to Culture and Original Nature” (1922).
• Definition: Cultural lag is the strain that exists when the ‘material culture’ (technology, infrastructure) changes or advances more rapidly than the ‘non-material culture’ (values, norms, beliefs, laws, institutions).
• Examples in Indian Context:
  • Medical Technology vs. Social Values: The availability of advanced technology like ultrasonography to determine the health of a foetus has outpaced the change in social values that prefer a male child, leading to its misuse for sex-selective abortion.
  • Environmental Technology vs. Civic Behaviour: While technologies for waste management and recycling have advanced, changing public behaviour regarding waste segregation and disposal under initiatives like the Swachh Bharat Mission remains a major challenge.
  • Legislation vs. Social Acceptance: The passage of progressive laws (e.g., Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961; Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005) often precedes their deep internalization and acceptance by society, leading to a gap between law in the books and law in practice.
  • Modernity and Tradition: The coexistence of modern practices with traditional ties is a classic example. An individual might work in a high-tech MNC but still adhere to traditional kinship obligations, creating a hybrid reality (e.g., nuclear families with strong extended family ties, E-Darshan, hybrid learning models).

Impact of Globalization and Social Empowerment

• Effect of Globalization on Indian Society: Globalization has had a profound, multi-dimensional impact.

  • On Social Structure/Institutions:
    • Family: Rise of nuclear families, dual-earner households, transnational families.
    • Caste: While caste identity has become more fluid in urban economic settings, it has often been reinforced in politics through caste-based mobilizations.
    • Marriage: Changing norms, increase in inter-caste/inter-religious marriages, rise of live-in relationships.
  • On Culture:
    • Homogenization: Spread of a global consumer culture (e.g., food chains, fashion, entertainment), often termed ‘cultural imperialism’ or ‘McDonaldisation’.
    • Hybridisation/Glocalization: The blending of global and local cultures to create new, unique forms (e.g., ‘Hinglish’, Bollywood incorporating Western genres, Indian adaptations of global TV shows).
    • Revival of Local Culture: A reactive process where communities, feeling their identity threatened by global forces, reassert and revitalize their local traditions and cultural practices.

• Social Empowerment:

  • Definition: It is the process of enhancing the capacity and agency of marginalized individuals and groups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes. It is about gaining autonomy in decision-making and the confidence to challenge oppressive structures.
  • Beyond Political and Economic Empowerment: Social empowerment is the foundation upon which political and economic empowerment become meaningful.
    • A woman may be economically empowered by earning a salary, but if she lacks the autonomy to spend her earnings, she is not socially empowered.
    • A woman may be politically empowered by being elected as a Sarpanch, but if her husband or male relatives control her decisions (the phenomenon of ‘Sarpanch Pati’), she lacks social empowerment.
    • Similarly, despite affirmative action, individuals from marginalized castes facing prejudice and discrimination in educational institutions or workplaces are denied social empowerment.

Impact of British Rule on Indian Society

The British colonial encounter was a powerful force of change that created a deep and lasting tension between traditional Indian social structures and modern Western ideas. This can be understood as a transition from a ‘Traditional’ to a ‘Modern’ social order.

Traditional Social Order	Forces of Change (Introduced by British)	Resulting New Social Order	Modern Social Order (Ideal)
Ascriptive Status: Social position determined by birth (caste, gender, religion). This was a ‘ritual status’.	New social structures, secular education, English language, printing press, modern transport.	Industrialization, urbanization, new means of acquiring wealth and power.	Achievement Status: Social position earned through merit, effort, and accomplishment. This is a ‘secular status’.
Hierarchy: Rigid social stratification with groups arranged vertically (e.g., Varna system).	Dissemination of Western ideas of liberty, equality, and justice.	Emergence of a new, educated middle class and a new elite.	Egalitarianism: The principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities.
Strong Religious Orientation: Religion permeated all aspects of life, from personal conduct to social laws.	Introduction of a secular legal system, rational-bureaucratic administration.	Rise of social and religious reform movements that questioned traditional practices.	Rationality: Actions and beliefs guided by reason, logic, and scientific temper, rather than tradition or emotion.
Collectivism: The individual’s identity was subordinate to the group (family, caste, village).	New economic systems favouring individual enterprise; Western education emphasizing individualism.	Weakening of traditional collective units like the joint family and caste panchayats.	Individualism: Emphasis on individual autonomy, rights, and self-reliance.
Particularism: Rules and obligations were applied differently based on one’s relationship or social status. (Motto: “You show me the man, I’ll show you the rule.“)	A uniform, codified legal system (e.g., Indian Penal Code) based on the principle of equality before the law.	The introduction of formal, impersonal rules in administration and law.	Universalism: The principle that laws, rules, and moral standards should apply equally to everyone, irrespective of their identity or relationships.

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Prelims Pointers

• Isolation Policy: Advocated by Verrier Elwin for tribal communities to preserve their culture.
• Assimilation Policy: Advocated by G.S. Ghurye, who considered tribals as ‘backward Hindus’.
• Integration Policy: Official GOI policy championed by Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Tribal Panchsheel: The five guiding principles for tribal administration and development proposed by Nehru.
• G.S. Ghurye: Sociologist who wrote “The Scheduled Tribes” (1943).
• Verrier Elwin: Anthropologist known for his ethnographic work on Indian tribes.
• Salient Features of Indian Society: Caste system, Unity in Diversity (linguistic, religious, etc.), Patriarchy.
• Multiculturalism: Coexistence of diverse cultures.
• Melting Pot Model: Cultures blend to form a new, homogenous culture (assimilation).
• Salad Bowl Model: Cultures mix but retain their distinct identities (integration).
• Pluralism: Coexistence of minority cultures with a dominant culture that sets the terms of engagement.
• Cultural Lag: Concept introduced by William F. Ogburn.
• Definition of Cultural Lag: A situation where material culture (technology) advances faster than non-material culture (norms, values).
• Ascriptive Status: Status assigned at birth (e.g., caste, gender). Also known as ritual status.
• Achievement Status: Status acquired through effort and merit. Also known as secular status.
• Particularism: Applying rules and norms based on relationships and social status.
• Universalism: Applying rules and norms equally to everyone.
• Sarpanch Pati: A phenomenon where the husband of an elected female village head exercises de facto power.

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Mains Insights

Debates on Tribal Policy and Contemporary Relevance

• The Elwin-Ghurye debate is not merely historical; it reflects the ongoing ideological tension in policies for marginalized groups.
  • Cause-Effect: The ‘isolationist’ fear of exploitation led to protective legislation like the Fifth Schedule and PESA Act, 1996. The ‘assimilationist’ drive for national unity sometimes informs policies that may undermine cultural uniqueness (e.g., debates on a uniform educational curriculum).
  • Viewpoint: Today, the goal is ‘integration with autonomy’. The challenge is to bring development (health, education, livelihood) to tribal areas without causing ‘development-induced displacement’ or cultural erosion. Policies must balance constitutional protections with aspirations for modernity. The Forest Rights Act, 2006, is a modern attempt to reconcile these conflicting pulls.

The Paradox of Tradition and Modernity

• The impact of British rule and subsequent globalization did not lead to a simple replacement of tradition with modernity. Instead, it created a complex coexistence and hybridization.
  • Analysis: Indians have selectively adopted, adapted, and reinterpreted modern elements to fit their traditional contexts. For instance, caste identity, a traditional feature, has been powerfully repurposed for political mobilization in modern democratic politics (M.N. Srinivas). Similarly, technology (modernity) is used for religious rituals like ‘E-Darshan’ (tradition).
  • Implication for Governance: Policies must recognize this hybrid reality. A ‘one-size-fits-all’ modern solution often fails because it ignores deep-seated cultural logics. Effective governance requires navigating this interface, as seen in the challenges of implementing a Uniform Civil Code.

Cultural Lag and its Manifestations in Social Problems

• The concept of Cultural Lag is a powerful analytical tool for understanding many of India’s pressing social issues.
  • Adverse Sex Ratio: The paradox of prosperous regions having worse sex ratios (e.g., Punjab, Haryana) can be explained by Cultural Lag. These regions have access to modern medical technology (material culture) but retain a deep-rooted patriarchal preference for sons (non-material culture). Economic prosperity provides the means to act on this prejudice through sex-selective abortion.
  • Environmental Degradation: The rapid pace of industrialization and consumerism (material culture) has not been matched by the development of a widespread environmental ethic or civic responsibility (non-material culture), leading to pollution and resource depletion.
  • Cybercrime and Social Media: The rapid proliferation of digital technology has outpaced the development of social norms, digital literacy, and legal frameworks to handle issues like fake news, online harassment, and data privacy.

Social Empowerment as the Cornerstone of Development

• The syllabus topic of ‘Social Empowerment’ serves as a crucial concluding theme for many answers in GS Papers I, II, and IV.
  • Interlinkage: Economic growth and political representation are necessary but insufficient conditions for true development. Without social empowerment, economic gains can be usurped by patriarchal family members, and political power can become nominal (e.g., Sarpanch Pati).
  • Ethical Dimension (GS-IV): Lack of social empowerment is a denial of social justice and human dignity. An administrator’s role is not just to implement schemes but to foster an environment of social empowerment, which requires qualities like empathy, compassion, and courage to challenge vested interests and discriminatory social norms.
  • Answering Questions: When discussing issues like women’s safety, caste atrocities, or the rights of persons with disabilities, a strong conclusion would link the proposed solutions to the ultimate goal of achieving genuine social empowerment, which transforms individuals from passive recipients of welfare to active agents of change.