Elaborate Notes
Contemporary Reality with Respect to Caste
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The Debate on the Decline of Caste:
- Sociologist André Beteille, in his seminal work “Caste, Class, and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village” (1965) and subsequent writings, famously argued that “India’s destiny is not caste in stone.” He posited that with modernization, urbanization, and the establishment of a democratic-secular state, the traditional Jajmani system and the rigid ritual hierarchy of caste were declining.
- Beteille identified several factors contributing to this change:
- Caste-neutral jobs: The rise of the industrial and service sectors created employment based on skills and qualifications rather than birth, moving away from hereditary occupations.
- Commensality: Restrictions on inter-dining, a cornerstone of caste purity rules, have significantly weakened, especially in urban, public spaces like offices, restaurants, and transport.
- Secular pattern of living: Urban life and modern education promote a secular worldview that undermines the religious and ritualistic basis of the caste system.
- Upward mobility: Constitutional provisions like Reservation (Articles 15(4) and 16(4)), post-independence initiatives like Land Reforms, and the implementation of the Mandal Commission report (1990) provided avenues for socio-economic advancement for lower castes, challenging the fixed hierarchy.
- Inter-caste marriages: Though infrequent, their increasing acceptance, particularly in cities, signals a weakening of endogamous norms.
- Beteille conceded that while the ritualistic and social aspects of caste were diminishing, it has found a new, powerful role in the political domain. This manifests as the ‘politicisation of caste’ (caste groups organising to demand political power and resources) and ‘casteization of politics’ (political parties using caste identities to build vote banks). He often noted that media hype sometimes exaggerates the role of caste in electoral outcomes.
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The Persistence of Caste: Counter-Arguments and Evidence:
- Scholar Gail Omvedt, known for works like “Dalits and the Democratic Revolution” (1994), presented a contrasting view. She argued that while the form of caste has changed, its core discriminatory essence and structural inequalities persist robustly.
- Empirical Evidence:
- Caste Endogamy: The India Human Development Survey (IHDS) found that only about 5% of marriages in India are inter-caste. This starkly demonstrates that endogamy, the practice of marrying within one’s own caste or sub-caste, remains a powerful social norm, reinforcing caste boundaries.
- Occupational Hierarchy: Data from the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment reveals the deep-rooted link between caste and occupation. The fact that 97.25% of identified manual scavengers belong to Scheduled Caste communities is a grim reminder of how the most degrading jobs are still reserved for Dalits, perpetuating the old purity-pollution complex.
- Prevalence of Untouchability: A study by Amit Thorat and Omkar Joshi highlighted that discriminatory practices are not confined to rural areas. Their research showed that approximately 30% of urban households admitted to practising some form of untouchability.
- Covert and Modern Forms of Untouchability: Sociologist Satish Deshpande introduced the concept of ‘Covert Untouchability’ to describe subtle, modern forms of discrimination that are harder to legislate against.
- Examples include maintaining separate utensils for domestic help belonging to lower castes, refusal to rent accommodation to Dalits in urban areas, and the formation of ‘residential ghettoization’ where neighbourhoods become segregated along caste and community lines.
- Rural Discrimination: A study by the Action Aid NGO across various villages found that in 25% of them, Dalits were barred from working as casual labourers on lands owned by dominant castes. In a staggering 75% of surveyed villages, if a Dalit’s identity was known, they were not permitted to sell milk to cooperatives or individual customers, directly impacting their livelihood due to notions of purity and pollution.
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Caste in the Age of Modernity: New Forms and Associations:
- Contrary to the belief that modernization would erase caste, it has provided new platforms for caste identities to consolidate and express themselves. M.N. Srinivas had earlier noted the development of “horizontal solidarity” among caste members spread over a wide geographical area, facilitated by modern transport and communication. Today, technology and new institutional forms have accelerated this.
- Political Associations: Caste has become a primary axis for political mobilization. Parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in Uttar Pradesh (representing Bahujan interests), the Samajwadi Party (SP) (relying on a Yadav-Muslim coalition), and social movements like the Maratha Kranti Morcha in Maharashtra demanding reservation are prime examples.
- Economic Associations: Caste-based networks have emerged to promote economic interests. The Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) aims to foster entrepreneurship among Dalits. Similarly, the National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSCFDC) provides financial assistance.
- Social Associations: Modern technology has been co-opted to reinforce old traditions. Matrimonial websites like BrahminMatrimony.com and RajputMatrimony.com use digital platforms to enforce caste endogamy. Educational societies like the Vaishya Educational Society and literary movements like Dalit Sahitya (Dalit Literature) have emerged to promote community welfare and cultural expression.
- Contrary to the belief that modernization would erase caste, it has provided new platforms for caste identities to consolidate and express themselves. M.N. Srinivas had earlier noted the development of “horizontal solidarity” among caste members spread over a wide geographical area, facilitated by modern transport and communication. Today, technology and new institutional forms have accelerated this.
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The Phenomenon of ‘Retribalization’:
- Retribalization is a process where certain communities, often those who were historically tribes but were assimilated into the caste system over time (a process known as de-tribalization), seek to reclaim and get official recognition for their tribal identity.
- Examples: In Assam, communities like the Rajbhansi, Matak, Moran, Chutia, Tai-Ahom, and Koch have been demanding Scheduled Tribe (ST) status.
- Factors Driving Retribalization:
- Decline in Political Influence: Many of these communities held significant political power in medieval or pre-colonial times, which has since eroded, leading to a sense of marginalization.
- Socio-economic Deprivation: Displacement from ancestral lands due to development projects, loss of traditional livelihoods, and economic distress have pushed these communities to the margins.
- Aspiration for Benefits: They lag in education and employment compared to other groups. The demand for ST status is thus rooted in a pragmatic aspiration for social recognition, political representation (e.g., reserved seats), and access to the benefits and protections afforded to STs under the Constitution, such as reservations in jobs and education and protection of land rights.
Contemporary Issues
- Reservation (Affirmative Action):
- Concept: Reservation is a form of affirmative action wherein a percentage of seats are reserved in public educational institutions, government jobs, and legislative bodies for socially and educationally backward communities, specifically the Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
- Constitutional Rationale: The policy is not merely about poverty alleviation but is a tool for social justice, aimed at:
- Correcting Historical Injustice: To compensate for centuries of systemic discrimination and exclusion faced by lower castes.
- Providing Equality of Opportunity: To create a level playing field, ensuring that individuals from marginalized backgrounds can compete on an equal footing. This aligns with the principle of “substantive equality” over “formal equality.”
- Redistributive Agenda of the State: To ensure a more equitable distribution of societal resources, power, and status, in line with the Directive Principles of State Policy.
The Debate on Reservation:
| Arguments in Favor of Reservation | Arguments Against Reservation |
|---|---|
| Meritocracy is a flawed concept without equality of opportunity. Merit itself is a product of social, cultural, and economic capital, which marginalized groups lack. | It compromises merit, as candidates with lower scores may be selected over those with higher scores, potentially affecting quality and efficiency. |
| In a representative democracy, it is a political necessity to ensure representation of all sections of society in governance and public institutions. | It can negatively impact administrative efficiency, although this claim lacks robust empirical evidence and is often based on prejudice. |
| It is essential to reduce the vast socio-economic gap between the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’ and foster an inclusive society. | It strengthens caste stereotypes by discrediting the success of individuals from reserved categories, labeling it as a ‘result of reservation’ rather than merit. |
| It helps to correct negative stereotypes associated with caste by enabling members of marginalized groups to occupy positions of power and prestige. | It can widen inter-caste (e.g., between reserved and unreserved categories) and intra-caste (e.g., among different OBC castes) conflicts over the share of benefits. |
| It helps build social and cultural capital for communities that have been historically deprived of it, creating role models and support networks. | It has had a ‘Domino effect’, where politically and numerically strong communities like Jats, Patidars, and Marathas also demand reservation, leading to social unrest. |
| It ensures diversity in workplaces and educational institutions, which is proven to foster innovation and better problem-solving. | It has been reduced to a ‘political tool’ for electoral gains, with parties often promising reservations to woo specific caste-based vote banks. |
| It is crucial to reap the benefits of India’s demographic dividend by empowering a large section of the youth who would otherwise be left behind. | For many, it has become an ‘end’ in itself (a permanent entitlement) rather than a temporary ‘means’ to achieve social equality. |
| It promotes inclusive growth and sustainable development by bringing marginalized communities into the mainstream economy. | It has deepened ‘caste consciousness’ and is manifested in identity politics, working against the goal of a casteless society. |
| It is a means to realize the Preamble’s promise of justice (social, economic, political), equality (of status and opportunity), and fraternity. | Over time, it has been criticized as a ‘tool for reverse discrimination’ against the general category, particularly the economically poor within it. |
| It has largely failed to change the deep-seated societal attitude and prejudice against marginalized groups. | |
| Critics argue it goes against Amartya Sen’s ‘Capability Approach’, which focuses on enhancing individual capabilities rather than group-based entitlements. | |
| It can create grounds for groupism and division within institutions, hindering a sense of common identity. |
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Way Forward for Reservation Policy:
- Revisiting Criteria: There is a need to develop a more dynamic and objective yardstick to determine backwardness, potentially including economic criteria alongside social ones. A mechanism for ‘de-reservation’ of castes that have achieved a certain level of progress should be established.
- Creamy Layer Exclusion: The Supreme Court, in landmark cases like M. Nagaraj v. Union of India (2006) and Jarnail Singh v. Lachhmi Narain Gupta (2018), has advocated for the application of the ‘creamy layer’ principle (excluding the affluent among the backward classes) to SCs and STs to ensure benefits reach the most deserving.
- Educational Overhaul: The root of inequality lies in access to quality education. A massive overhaul is needed to bring public education at par with private education to create a genuine level playing field from the foundational stage.
- Addressing School-level Discrimination: Stereotypes and prejudices at the school level lead to high dropout rates among Dalit and Adivasi children. Sensitization programs and strict implementation of anti-discrimination laws are needed.
- Periodic Evaluation: A regular, data-driven evaluation of the reservation policy is necessary to assess its impact and ensure that benefits are percolating down to the intended beneficiaries, preventing cornering by a few influential sub-castes.
- Economic Diversification: Promote a culture of self-employment and entrepreneurship to shift the focus from ‘job seeker to job generator’.
- Revitalizing Agriculture: As argued by agricultural scientist M.S. Swaminathan, “The future belongs to countries with grains and not guns.” Making agriculture lucrative is crucial, as many communities demanding reservation are from the distressed agrarian sector.
- Perception Management: There is an urgent need to manage the public perception of reservation, communicating clearly that it is a temporary constitutional ‘means’ for social justice, not a permanent ‘end’ or a privilege.
Dominant Castes Demanding Reservation
- Context: The term “Dominant Caste” was coined by sociologist M.N. Srinivas to describe castes that are numerically strong, own a significant portion of arable land, and have high social and political influence in a local area. Examples include Jats, Marathas, Patidars, and Vokkaligas.
- Traditional vs. Contemporary Reality:
- Traditionally, these were landowning agricultural communities. Their economic and political position was consolidated by post-independence land reforms (which often benefited intermediate tenant castes) and further bolstered by the Green Revolution, which increased their agricultural surpluses and wealth. However, many did not prioritize modern, English-based education.
- In contemporary times, their dominance is under threat due to several factors:
- Agrarian Distress: Agriculture has become less profitable due to land fragmentation, rising input costs, unpredictable monsoons, and volatile market prices.
- Lack of Alternative Employment: Having missed the bus on higher education, many youths from these communities lack the skills for high-paying white-collar jobs.
- Shrinking Public Jobs: Government jobs, a traditional source of stable employment, are shrinking due to privatization and outsourcing. According to the Indian Staffing Federation, 44% of Central government jobs are now outsourced.
- Expensive Private Sector: Quality private education and healthcare are prohibitively expensive, making it difficult for them to compete.
- Social Pressures: An ‘obsession with city life’ and skewed sex ratios in some of these communities create additional social pressures.
- The Issue of Unequal Distribution: The demand is also fueled by a perception of inequity within the existing reservation system. The Justice Rohini Panel, constituted to examine the sub-categorization of OBCs, found that reservation benefits were not distributed evenly. Its preliminary findings suggested that just 1% of OBC castes had cornered 50% of the reservation benefits, while 20% of OBC castes received no benefits at all. This fuels the argument by dominant castes that the system is unfair and they too deserve a share.
Dalit Capitalism
- Concept: Coined by social thinker and activist Chandra Bhan Prasad, Dalit Capitalism refers to the idea that capitalism and entrepreneurship can be a solution for the social and economic emancipation of Dalits, freeing them from traditional caste-based occupations and dependency.
- Definition of ‘Dalit’: The term, meaning ‘broken’ or ‘oppressed’, was first used by social reformer Jyotiba Phule in the 19th century. It was popularized by the Dalit Panther movement in Maharashtra in the 1970s as a self-chosen political identity for those subjected to social discrimination, including untouchability, and economic marginalization.
Dalit Capitalism: A Panacea or a Flawed Idea?
| Arguments in Favor | Arguments Against |
|---|---|
| Financial Empowerment: It provides a direct path to wealth creation, breaking the cycle of poverty and economic dependence on upper castes. | Internal Division: The benefits would largely be reaped by the already better-placed ‘creamy layer’ among Dalits, deepening the ‘class within the caste’ divide. |
| Upward Social Mobility: Economic success can lead to better access to education, healthcare, and housing, facilitating upward mobility in the secular, though not necessarily the ritual, hierarchy. | Does Not Address Mindset: It primarily addresses economic status. Social mobility remains confined to the ‘secular hierarchy’ and does not challenge the deep-seated ‘ritual hierarchy’ or the mindset of purity and pollution. |
| Creating an Inclusive Society: Successful Dalit entrepreneurs can integrate into the mainstream economy, challenging traditional power structures. | Lack of Social Capital: Dalit entrepreneurs often lack access to business networks, credit, and mentorship, which are crucial for success and are often controlled by dominant caste networks. |
| Utilizing Demographic Dividend: It can unleash the entrepreneurial potential of a large segment of India’s youth, contributing to national growth. | Politicization and Cronyism: It could lead to an increased nexus between Dalit entrepreneurs and politicians, potentially leading to crony capitalism rather than broad-based empowerment. |
| Challenging Stereotypes: By succeeding in business, Dalits can break the stereotype that they are only fit for menial jobs. | Market Discrimination: Dalit-owned businesses may face a negative impact on their customer base due to prejudice and the concept of purity and pollution. |
| Changing Perspective on Reservation: It could shift the focus from a dependency on state-led reservation to market-led self-reliance. | Inherent Inequality of Capitalism: Capitalism as a system inherently produces inequality. Expecting it to solve a deep-rooted social problem like caste is an oversimplified assumption. |
| Community Empowerment: Successful entrepreneurs can become job creators, challenging the traditional occupational division of labour by employing others from their community. | Endowment vs. Entitlement: As per Amartya Sen’s framework, endowments (like skills, capital) are necessary but not sufficient. Entitlements (social acceptance, market access) are key. Dalit capitalism may only benefit those who already possess endowments. |
| Facilitating Social Transformation: Economic power can translate into social and political influence, leading to broader social change. | Intersectionality Ignored: The intersectionality approach highlights that Dalit women are among the most marginalized. Dalit capitalism, being male-dominated, may not directly address their specific vulnerabilities. |
| Strengthening National Identity: Economic success can give Dalits a greater sense of belonging and stake in the nation-building process. | Confronting ‘Covert Untouchability’: Even successful Dalit capitalists may face subtle forms of discrimination and social exclusion in business and social circles. |
| Reducing Identity Politics: By focusing on economic goals, it may reduce the salience of caste in politics, shifting from ‘casteization of politics’ to development-focused politics. | Increased Inter-caste Conflict: The rise of a wealthy Dalit class could lead to a sense of ‘relative deprivation’ among poor upper castes, potentially increasing social friction. |
Violence Against Dalits
- Prevalence: Despite stringent legal provisions like the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, violence against Dalits continues to be a pervasive issue. The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) report for 2021 showed a 1.2% increase in crimes against SCs compared to 2020.
- Reasons for Persistent Violence:
- Threat to Hegemony: According to the political scientist Christophe Jaffrelot, violence is often a backlash. As Dalits achieve upward mobility through education, economic progress, and political assertion, the traditional ‘hegemony of the upper caste’ is threatened, leading to violent reactions to ‘put them in their place’.
- Failure of the Justice System: A low conviction rate and high pendency of cases under the Atrocities Act create a lack of fear of the law. As the saying goes, it is not the ‘severity of the law’ but the certainty of punishment that acts as a deterrent.
- Barriers to Justice: Lack of awareness about legal rights, and issues of accessibility and affordability of the justice system prevent many victims from filing cases.
- Institutional Apathy: Law enforcement agencies are often accused of apathy, prejudice, and procedural delays when dealing with cases of violence against Dalits.
- Economic Dependence and Fear: Many Dalits are economically dependent on their dominant caste perpetrators for employment or land. The ‘fear of retaliation’ often leads to under-reporting of crimes.
- Reaction to Sanskritisation: As per Gail Omvedt, violence can be a ‘counter-reaction to the process of Sanskritisation’. When Dalits adopt upper-caste customs (e.g., a Dalit groom riding a horse in a wedding procession), it is seen as a transgression of ritual boundaries and is often met with brutal violence.
- Fatalistic Beliefs: In some cases, victims may not report crimes, perceiving their suffering as a ‘retribution of past karma’ for which there is no worldly respite, a belief system that has been used to justify the caste hierarchy for centuries.
- The Issue of Misuse of Law:
- The Supreme Court has, on occasion, observed that the stringent provisions of the Atrocities Act are sometimes misused to settle personal scores.
- It is crucial to note that the possibility of misuse does not justify the dilution of a law designed to protect a vulnerable community. Instead, it calls for better regulation, fair investigation, and mechanisms to penalize false complaints, ensuring the law is used as a ‘shield’ for the oppressed and not as a ‘weapon’ for extraneous purposes.
Prelims Pointers
- André Beteille: Sociologist who argued for the decline of the caste system in its ritualistic form, but its persistence in politics. Coined the phrase “India’s destiny is not caste in stone.”
- Gail Omvedt: Scholar who argued for the persistence of caste-based discrimination and viewed violence against Dalits as a counter-reaction to Sanskritisation.
- Satish Deshpande: Coined the term ‘Covert Untouchability’ to describe subtle, modern forms of caste discrimination.
- Chandra Bhan Prasad: Social activist who coined the term ‘Dalit Capitalism’.
- M.S. Swaminathan: Agricultural scientist whose quote “Future belongs to countries with grains and not guns” is used in the context of agrarian distress.
- Jyotiba Phule: 19th-century social reformer who first used the term ‘Dalit’.
- Dalit Panther Movement: A social and political movement in Maharashtra in the 1970s that popularized the term ‘Dalit’.
- Retribalization: The process where communities seek to regain and get official recognition for their tribal identity. E.g., Tai-Ahom, Matak, Moran in Assam.
- Dominant Caste: A concept by M.N. Srinivas, referring to a caste with numerical strength, land ownership, and political power in a local area.
- Key Statistics:
- Inter-caste Marriages: 5% (Source: India Human Development Survey - IHDS).
- Manual Scavengers: 97.25% belong to the SC community (Source: Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment).
- Urban Untouchability: Practiced by ~30% of urban households (Source: Study by Amit Thorat and Omkar Joshi).
- Violence against Dalits: Increased by 1.2% in 2021 compared to 2020 (Source: NCRB Report 2021).
- Outsourced Govt. Jobs: 44% of Central government jobs are outsourced (Source: Indian Staffing Federation).
- Key Committees/Panels:
- Mandal Commission: Recommended 27% reservation for Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
- Justice Rohini Panel: Appointed to examine the sub-categorization of OBCs. Found that 1% of OBC castes cornered 50% of reservation benefits.
- Key Supreme Court Cases on Reservation:
- Indra Sawhney & Ors. v. Union of India (1992): Upheld Mandal commission report, capped reservation at 50%, and introduced the concept of ‘creamy layer’ for OBCs.
- M. Nagaraj v. Union of India (2006): Upheld reservations in promotions but laid down stringent conditions.
- Jarnail Singh v. Lachhmi Narain Gupta (2018): Stated that the ‘creamy layer’ principle could be applied to SCs and STs.
- Organizations:
- DICCI: Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
- NSCFDC: National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation.
- Key Legislation:
- Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.
Mains Insights
Caste: Dynamics of Continuity and Change
- GS Paper I (Indian Society): The contemporary reality of caste is a classic example of continuity and change.
- Continuity: The core principles of hierarchy and exclusion persist, albeit in changed forms. This is evident in the continued practice of caste endogamy (95% of marriages), the link between caste and menial occupations (manual scavenging), and the prevalence of ‘covert untouchability’ in urban spaces.
- Change: The form of caste has transformed from a rigid ritual hierarchy (Jajmani system) to a tool for political mobilization and economic networking. Modern institutions like political parties (BSP, SP), economic associations (DICCI), and even technology (matrimonial websites) have been adapted to serve caste-based interests, demonstrating the resilience and adaptability of the caste system.
Reservation Policy: A Tool for Social Justice or a Source of Conflict?
- GS Paper II (Polity & Governance): The debate around reservation policy is central to India’s social justice framework.
- Cause-Effect Analysis: The initial cause for reservation was historical injustice. Its intended effect was to create a more equitable society. However, the unintended effects include the deepening of caste consciousness, inter-caste conflict, and its use as a tool for electoral politics. The demand for reservation by dominant castes is a direct consequence of agrarian distress and shrinking public employment, showing how economic anxieties are being channeled through the idiom of caste.
- Policy Debate: The way forward requires moving beyond a simplistic for/against binary. The focus should be on refining the policy. Key debates include:
- Creamy Layer: Should the affluent among SCs/STs be excluded to ensure benefits reach the neediest? This pits the principle of ‘group disadvantage’ against ‘individual progress’.
- Sub-categorization: As highlighted by the Justice Rohini Panel, is there a need to sub-categorize large caste groups like OBCs to ensure equitable distribution of benefits?
- Alternative Frameworks: Is it time to supplement caste-based reservation with other criteria (economic, gender, geographical) or focus more on strengthening universal public services like education and healthcare, as a long-term solution?
Dalit Capitalism: An Ideological Debate on Emancipation
- GS Paper I (Indian Society) & GS Paper IV (Ethics):
- Ideological Conflict: Dalit capitalism represents a significant ideological shift from state-led, rights-based approaches to a market-driven model of empowerment. It can be contrasted with the Ambedkarite vision, which prioritized political power and legal rights (‘Educate, Agitate, Organize’) as the primary means of emancipation and called for the ‘annihilation of caste’ itself, a goal which capitalism may not achieve.
- Ethical Dimensions: Is it ethical to promote a system (capitalism) that inherently creates inequality as a solution to a problem of historical inequality? While it offers a pathway out of poverty for some, it risks creating a small Dalit elite, leaving the vast majority behind and potentially weakening the collective struggle for social justice. It raises the question of ‘empowerment for whom?’
Structural Violence and the Role of the State
- GS Paper II (Polity & Social Justice):
- Structural Nature of Violence: Violence against Dalits is not merely a series of isolated criminal acts but is ‘structural’. It is a mechanism to enforce social hierarchy and punish transgressions. The violence that follows a Dalit groom riding a horse is not about the horse; it is about challenging a social code. This perspective, articulated by scholars like Christophe Jaffrelot and Gail Omvedt, is crucial for a deeper analysis.
- Efficacy of Law vs. Social Change: The persistence of violence despite the stringent PoA Act highlights the limitations of a purely legalistic approach. While strong laws are necessary as a deterrent and for providing justice, they must be complemented by efforts to bring about attitudinal change in society through education, social awareness campaigns, and proactive measures by law enforcement agencies to break the nexus between caste and power at the local level. The state’s role is not just punitive but also transformative.